Two types of ethical relativism are explained in relativism ethics. First, Individual Relativism discusses personal views and confidence. This suggests a person thinks they influence and assist them make decisions. Thus, they will ignore others' opinions. For instance, a person is certain that he can finish a work quickly even when others claim he can't. Second, Cultural Relativism. It focuses on social culture and tradition. Like ourselves, guys and cultural traditions vary amongst societies. Thus, society's acts cannot be used to judge good or bad. Because the society we despise will likewise despise our acts. In short, every culture and tradition has nothing bad or correct.

Key ethical relativism objections include:

Cultural Diversity: Ethical relativism recognises the great diversity of moral views and behaviours among cultures and societies. It advises tolerance and respect for these variances.

Moral disagreement: Ethical relativism is commonly used to explain cultural and individual moral differences. It assumes these disputes are normal.

Cultural Critique: Ethical relativism can excuse discrimination, injustice, and human rights abuses in some societies, according to critics. They say it doesn't support criticising these behaviours.

Moral Progress: Critics claim that ethical relativism might impede moral growth by preventing the potential of enhancing moral norms or addressing harmful practices.

Inconsistencies: Cultural or individual moral beliefs can collide with ethical relativism. It does not provide a clear conflict resolution approach.

Tolerance vs. Universal Values: The balance between cultural tolerance and universal moral ideals is a topic of continuous debate in ethics. Many philosophers seek a balance between cultural variation and universal ethics.

Example of Case Study:

Media Gender Representation: Female underrepresentation and harmful stereotypes in media and entertainment can be addressed by feminist ethics. Ethical analysis can examine media's influence on social views and the need for diverse and realistic portrayals of women.

Political Leadership and Representation: Feminists can address the paucity of women in political leadership and the ethical implications of gender diversity in government.

Important care ethics concepts include:

Relationships: Care ethics emphasises how personal ties shape morality. It implies that our ethical obligations stem from our relationships with family, friends, and neighbours.

Care as a Virtue: Care ethicists consider caring a virtue like honesty or courage. Caring is a moral virtue that should be cultivated.

Particularity: Care ethics prioritises human needs above universal morality. Each situation's concrete and personal features are considered.

Contextual Ethics: Care ethics is highly contextual. It suggests making ethical decisions based on the individual relationships and situations, taking into consideration their intricacies and complexities.

Empathy and Emotional Engagement: Care ethics emphasises empathy and emotional engagement in moral decision-making. It teaches people to examine others' feelings and needs and respond with empathy.

Gender and Care: Care ethics emphasises feminine characteristics like nurturing, empathy, and care work, making it related with feminist ethics. Some care ethicists believe these qualities should be included in a more comprehensive ethical framework because standard ethical theories undervalue them.

Critical of Impartiality: Care ethics undermines standard ethical theories' impartiality and universal ideals. It shows that these theories' impartiality and abstraction can ignore individual needs and weaknesses.

Religious traditions have had a profound impact on the development of ethical frameworks throughout nations and civilisations.  Religion frequently provides a moral and ethical foundation for individuals within a civilisation. Religious teachings and beliefs can shape the moral ideals, ethical principles, and social standards that govern human behaviour in a society. In order to help people negotiate difficult moral dilemmas and make decisions that are consistent with their beliefs, many faiths offer a set of moral and ethical principles that serve as a guide for behaviour and decision-making (Cornwell et al,.2005).  Many civilisations acquired their moral precepts from religious traditions.  Moral principles are frequently derived from sacred writings, teachings, and the authority of a divine being in religious ethics. These ethical precepts help believers live virtuous lives by providing a moral compass for personal behaviour, social interactions, and society structures.  On the other hand, ethical values are a collection of rules or guidelines that control organisational or professional behaviour. In order to uphold integrity and guard against wrongdoing, ethical values frequently address matters of justice, honesty, accountability, and responsibility (Chou, Lee & Fudano, 2022). Nonetheless, the goal of moral and ethical values is to direct actions and choices in a way that is consistent with a set of values or beliefs.

The interplay of ethics, philosophy, and religion is complex, with each subject providing distinct insights into the nature of morality and human behaviour. While philosophy offers a secular forum for ethical debate, religion frequently develops moral ideals through sacred teachings. The interaction between these domains is dynamic, including places of convergence as well as potential sources of divergence. Understanding this link is critical for establishing discussion, mutual respect, and expanding the worldwide debate on ethics and morality.

Ethics is a matter that guides and guides people in making a decision. This decision will determine what action will be taken based on what is determined by the individual himself. If the individual makes a correct assessment of the decision made, then it will help in getting a positive effect in every action taken. On the other hand, if the individual cannot determine the best decision in each ethical dilemma experienced, then it will have a negative effect on the individual.

An analogy that can be used in ethics is like a rule book wherever we are. This rule book will be consulted by each individual to ensure that all actions taken and all decisions made can increase satisfaction within themselves. The same goes for ethics. When we want to do something, we will think first, whether the thing or decision we do will benefit us or vice versa. For example, we want to decide whether we want to go to class or not. This decision can be made if we evaluate what are the bad and good effects of not going to class. Therefore, this ethics becomes a duty in every individual to ensure that everything that is done can guarantee a positive effect.

The first step in ethical reasoning is recognizing that a moral issue or dilemma exists. What are the real issues we experience when ethical dilemmas occur. It is important that we identify what the issue is because, sometimes, we often look at the solutions and decisions made. However, we do not see and examine what the real issue is. This involves understanding that there is a decision to be made that has ethical implications. 

Ethical reasoning requires gathering relevant information and facts about the situation or issue. This information may include the consequences of different actions, the stakeholders involved, and any relevant ethical principles or guidelines. The information we get in each ethical dilemma can help us find and determine what is the best decision we can make to ensure that the action we will take is good or bad for ourselves.

Ethical reasoning involves considering the potential consequences of different actions. This includes evaluating the likely benefits and harms that may result from various choices.Considering the consequences that will be experienced by the individual with every action taken is very important because it will teach us a lesson. For example, if we feel that doing an action gives us benefits such as rewards and gifts, we will definitely repeat the action.

Individuals engaged in ethical reasoning may reflect on their own values and beliefs, as well as the values and perspectives of others. This can help them assess how different options align with their personal or societal values. Although each individual has a variety of ethics that guide them in making decisions, they still have their own beliefs and values that will influence the decisions that will be made. It is these values and beliefs that will help individuals to give reasons why they make such decisions to maximise their satisfaction.

In complex ethical dilemmas, individuals may need to balance conflicting ethical principles or values. Ethical reasoning helps them weigh the relative importance of these principles and make difficult choices. The ethics of the dilemma that we experience indeed causes us to be confused with the ethics that we have to follow. There will definitely be contradictions between each type of ethics that we want to use in making a decision. So, we must stabilise the use of every ethic that exists so as not to cause us to feel wrong in making decisions. 

Ethical reasoning also involves assessing the rights and duties of all parties involved. This may involve recognizing and respecting the rights of individuals, such as autonomy, privacy, and freedom from harm. We will not feel complete satisfaction in the decisions made because we do not look at others. We will not feel complete satisfaction in the decisions made because we do not look at others. Take other initiatives if the decision we make inconveniences people or disturbs the peace of others

Ethical reasoning often requires engaging in thoughtful deliberation, considering multiple perspectives, and engaging in ethical discussions or debates with others to arrive at a well-considered decision. This is why we should be selfless. This is because, in every decision we make, there will be some things that will involve dealing with ourselves and others. Therefore, we cannot only look at ourselves, but we must look from various aspects and viewpoints.

According to utilitarianism, the most ethical decision is the one that produces the greatest benefit for the largest number of people. It is the only moral framework in which military force or war may be justified. Because of the way it accounts for costs and benefits, it is also the most popular method of moral reasoning utilised in business.

Influences of the author They assert that an action is morally right if it leads to the greatest overall good or maximises utility.  Simply say, the greatest happiness for the greatest number.  For instance, a situation where a rescue team only has one time to rescue two groups of individuals consisting of two people and 10 people. According to the utilitarian theory, it is better for the rescuer to sacrifice the two victims in order to save 10 victims because this can provide more benefits and benefits than to save only two victims.

Deontologists say that those who practise this concept in every decision they want to make in their lives, they will always give their best in everything they do. They will also leave things that they do not want to do. All this will be done well even if these deontologists are given the same treatment or different treatment to themselves. Simply put, they only do something because they want to do it, and they leave something because they themselves don't want to do it. This means that there is not a single thing that affects the actions and decisions made by this deontologist.

To show the situation for those who practice this deontology, we can see by giving a situation. For example, in a class at IIUM, a group of students who are in the class are given an assignment by their lecturer to be completed before the set date. Their lecturers only remind them to complete the assignments that have been given immediately. Therefore, this deontologist will consider an action to be good if they complete the task not just to get good marks or a gift from the lecturer. They consider it their responsibility and trust. On the other hand, deontologists consider their actions immoral when they do not think about the punishment or fine they will get if they do not do the task.

1. Implicit Contract

According to the notion of an implicit social compact, people offer agreement to join a society and be ruled by its government by residing in territory controlled by that society, which typically has a government. This assent is what gives such a government legitimacy.

2. Explicit Contract

Political power is justifiable, according to explicit social contract theory, since it is founded on the agreement of the governed. This agreement or treaty, such as a written constitution or a collection of laws, is often used to create this consent.

Plato- Identified four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. These are the necessities traits every human should have in order to have a good life.

Aristotle- eudaimonia ( a combination of well-being, happiness and flourishing )

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the virtue ethics theory was not widely applied because of the rise of other theories such as deontology and consequentialist

Niccolo Machiavelli-sees man as a being whose actions are motivated by his drives, appetites, and passions, which lead him often to immoral behavior

Plato-One should perform an act only if it is in one's interest

Egoism theory is a theory that recognized one’s own self and personal interest as one’s foundation of morality.

It is also the main factor that led someone to perform an action. There are three types of egoism. Psychological egoism, Ethical egoism and Rational egoism.