international Assistance:

UN Agencies: One important participant is the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). They support Sudan in creating its strategy to cut greenhouse gas emissions, known as the Nationally Determined Contribution, or NDC. Additionally, UNEP promotes early warning systems for droughts and floods, which are essential for readiness.
One more ardent advocate is the UN Development Programme. Through the Climate Promise programme, Sudan is able to obtain financial support and technical assistance for waste management, climate-resilient agriculture, and renewable energy.
World Bank: They assist initiatives like the Sustainable Land Management and Restoration Project financially and technically. This project assists communities in implementing strategies to deal with climate change, like restoring damaged land.
Organisations such as Red Cross and Red Crescent work closely with Sudanese communities to increase their resilience. including training to prepare for floods and droughts

local Initiatives:

National Government: Sudan's objectives for cutting emissions and preparing for climate change are outlined in a revised NDC that was filed. Waste management, forestry, and agriculture are given top priority in this plan .
Institutions in Sudan: The Sudanese Meteorological Authority is essential. They can enhance early warning systems and weather forecasts to help communities with support from other countries .
Problems:

Money is still a big obstacle. To carry out its climate change objectives, Sudan needs billions of dollars.
It takes constant work to increase resilience in disadvantaged groups, particularly in homes headed by women .
All things considered

national and local

• Conducting rescue operations and evacuations.

• Distributing essential relief supplies.

• Strengthening flood defenses and improving drainage systems.

• Developing early warning systems and community disaster training.

• Promoting flood-resistant agriculture and better farming practices.

• Enhancing environmental management through reforestation and wetland restoration.

• Implementing stricter urban planning and constructing resilient housing.

• Establishing financial mechanisms like insurance programs and securing international aid.

international

To address micronutrient deficiencies, the U.N. World Food Programme provides children with specialized nutritious foods that are fortified with vitamins and minerals.

To address recovery from the monsoons, the U.N. World Food Programme is restoring the country's flood protection walls and ground water channels. These assets will be built back stronger to endure the summer monsoon rains and facilitate a continued flow of clean drinking

Actions on climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Sahel at the national level:

While the G5 Sahel countries have various national climate change commitments, the integration of climate change into sectoral policies, ministries, and local development plans is limited and varies by country.

Both national and local governments face challenges in technical and financial capacity to implement climate change policies and programs. However, there are strong regional institutions, transboundary approaches, and locally-led initiatives that provide capacity for action.

Recognizing the importance of addressing climate as a cross-cutting issue, the Alliance Sahel (AS) established a climate working group in July 2019. The main objective of this group is to promote the integration of climate change into sectoral interventions of the Alliance Sahel. This aims to ensure that vulnerabilities are not exacerbated, efforts are climate-proofed, and strategies, programs, and projects contribute to national climate change priorities and commitments.

The Climate Mainstreaming Group of the Sahel Alliance is co-chaired by the African Development Bank and the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, with around 18 representatives from bilateral and multilateral members. A joint workplan has been developed. This group provides a platform for knowledge sharing and outreach and has initiated dialogue with UNFCCC focal points of the relevant countries and development partners to explore opportunities for enhancing the implementation of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and promoting green growth and stronger resilience.

1. Early Warning Systems: Implementing and enhancing early warning systems to alert communities about impending natural disasters such as droughts, wildfires, and floods. This allows people to evacuate or take necessary precautions ahead of time.

2. Community Awareness and Education: Conducting awareness campaigns to educate local communities about the risks and impacts of droughts, wildfires, and floods. This includes teaching them about sustainable land management practices, water conservation techniques, and ways to mitigate the effects of these disasters.

3. Natural Resource Management: Promoting sustainable natural resource management practices such as reforestation, soil conservation, and water harvesting techniques. These measures help to prevent soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and enhance water retention, thereby reducing the susceptibility of the region to droughts, wildfires, and floods.

International Assistance:

Children across the Dry Corridor receive nutritious school meals with help from WFP. Sometimes, it's the only meal they'll have in a day. The goal is to help communities adapt and build resilience to climate shocks through its Food Assistance for Assets (FFA) program.

National Assistance:

The Nicaraguan Dry Corridor Rural Family Sustainable Development Project (NICAVIDA) aims to improve the situation of Nicaraguan smallholders in the Dry Corridor by promoting economic diversification, productive transformation, environmental protection, and family nutrition. The project covers 58 municipalities and targets 30,000 families, with a particular focus on women and young people, ensuring access to nutritious food, natural resource management, and improved living standards.

Local Actions

1. Community-Based Adaptation: Local authorities and NGOs are promoting community-based adaptation strategies, such as establishing community water committees, implementing rainwater harvesting systems, and constructing small-scale irrigation projects.

2. Sustainable Agriculture Practices: Farmers are being trained in sustainable agricultural practices, such as agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and the use of drought-resistant crop varieties. These practices help maintain soil fertility and increase resilience to climate variability.

3. Environmental Education and Awareness: Local governments and NGOs are conducting educational campaigns to raise awareness about climate change and its impacts. These campaigns encourage communities to adopt sustainable practices and become active participants in local adaptation efforts.

INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

The Sahel region, spanning across several countries in Africa from Senegal in the west to Sudan in the east, faces significant challenges due to climate change. These include severe droughts, desertification, and extreme weather events that threaten food security, water availability, and livelihoods. International efforts to combat climate change in the Sahel involve various programs, initiatives, and partnerships aimed at mitigation, adaptation, and building resilience.

### 1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Paris Agreement

The countries in the Sahel are part of the UNFCCC and have committed to the Paris Agreement, which sets out a global framework to avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming.

Key Components:

- Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Sahelian countries submit NDCs outlining their strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts. These plans often focus on sustainable land management, renewable energy, and water conservation.

### 2. The Great Green Wall Initiative

The Great Green Wall is an African-led initiative aiming to restore 100 million hectares of degraded land across the Sahel by 2030, sequester 250 million tons of carbon, and create 10 million green jobs.

Key Components:

- Reforestation and Land Restoration: Planting trees and restoring degraded landscapes to combat desertification and improve soil health.

- Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting and promoting biodiversity to enhance ecosystem resilience.

- Livelihood Improvement: Creating jobs and improving food security through sustainable agricultural practices.

### 3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The UNCCD works specifically to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought, with a strong focus on the Sahel region.

Key Components:

- Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN): Encouraging countries to set targets for achieving LDN, which involves restoring degraded land to prevent further desertification.

- Capacity Building: Providing technical support and capacity building to help countries implement sustainable land management practices.

### 4. African Union (AU) and the Sahel Climate Strategy

The African Union has developed a Sahel Climate Strategy to address the unique challenges of the region.

Key Components:

- Regional Coordination: Promoting cooperation among Sahelian countries to tackle climate change collectively.

- Climate-Smart Agriculture: Implementing agricultural practices that enhance productivity and resilience to climate change.

- Infrastructure Development: Building resilient infrastructure to withstand extreme weather events and support economic development.

### 5. International Financial Support and Partnerships

Several international organizations and financial institutions provide funding and support for climate initiatives in the Sahel.

Key Components:

- Green Climate Fund (GCF): Supports projects aimed at enhancing climate resilience and reducing emissions in developing countries, including those in the Sahel.

- Global Environment Facility (GEF): Funds projects related to biodiversity, climate change, and land degradation.

- World Bank and African Development Bank (AfDB): Provide financial and technical assistance for climate adaptation and resilience projects.

### 6. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

These UN agencies play significant roles in supporting climate action in the Sahel.

Key Components:

- Climate Adaptation Projects: Implementing projects to improve water management, agricultural practices, and disaster risk reduction.

- Capacity Building and Technical Assistance: Providing training and resources to enhance the capacity of local communities and governments to address climate challenges.

### 7. Climate Resilience Initiatives and Projects

Various projects focus on building resilience and adapting to climate change in the Sahel.

Key Components:

- Africa Adaptation Initiative (AAI): Aims to enhance the adaptive capacity of African countries, including those in the Sahel, through funding and technical support.

- Building Resilience in the Sahel (BRACED): A UK-funded program that strengthens resilience by improving access to climate information, promoting diversified livelihoods, and enhancing disaster preparedness.

### Conclusion

International efforts to combat climate change in the Sahel region are multifaceted and involve a combination of policy frameworks, financial support, and on-the-ground projects. These efforts aim to mitigate the impacts of climate change, restore degraded land, enhance food security, and build resilient communities. Through initiatives like the Great Green Wall, financial mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund, and regional strategies supported by the African Union, the international community is working collaboratively to address the unique challenges faced by the Sahel region.

International authorites:

UNICEF: Focuses on providing clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services, along with nutrition and health services to mitigate the impact of drought on children and families.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): Supports agricultural resilience by distributing seeds, tools, and providing training to farmers. FAO also works on improving water management practices to sustain agricultural productivity.

National authorites:

Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management: Coordinates national response efforts, including emergency relief distributions and drought mitigation strategies.

Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security: Works on improving agricultural practices, providing seeds and tools, and promoting sustainable farming techniques to enhance food security.

Local authorites:

Facilitate the distribution of aid at the grassroots level, ensuring that local needs and priorities are addressed.

Implement community-driven projects such as building and maintaining water sources, establishing community gardens, and promoting drought-resistant crops.

1. International:

The UN aims to replicate the restoration of the landscapes by building and sharing of resources, knowledge, and climate-smart practices.

Some of these are:

1. Leaving cover crops on the soil.

2. Planting trees uphill of a field.

3. Mixing trees with agricultural plants.

2. National:

El Salvador submitted their Nationally-Determined Contribution or NDC to the UNFCCC in 2016,

which promises to begin integrating low carob development strategies to the countries climate change adapation and mitigation programmes. The country has also prioritized including:

1. Climate resilient development

2. Low carbon coastal urban development

3. Improved ecosystem

4. Land rehabilitation

5. Forest initiatives.

3. Local:

Rural communities are setting up tree nurseries in degraded ecosystems to begin reforestation. Many local communities are involved, and recieve young tree species, which are native to Central America, which restores the soil, and allows it to begin retaining water again. This allows rainfall to be stored in the upper hills, which provides water to the lower lands instead of flooding.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Somalia

Somalia, a country in the Horn of Africa, has been grappling with the severe impacts of climate change in recent years. As a developing nation with limited resources, Somalia faces significant challenges in addressing the threats posed by a changing climate. This case study examines the efforts of international, national, and local authorities to mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change in Somalia.

Climate Change Threats in Somalia

Somalia is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, which include:

1. Drought and Water Scarcity: Somalia has experienced an increase in the frequency and intensity of droughts, leading to water shortages, crop failures, and livestock deaths. This has had a devastating impact on the livelihoods of the predominantly pastoralist and agricultural population.

2. Flooding and Coastal Erosion: Rising sea levels and more frequent and severe flooding events have led to the displacement of coastal communities and the destruction of critical infrastructure, such as roads and bridges.

3. Food Insecurity: The combination of drought, crop failures, and livestock losses has contributed to widespread food insecurity, with a significant portion of the population facing acute malnutrition and famine.

4. Displacement and Migration: Climate-related disasters have forced many Somalis to flee their homes, leading to internal displacement and increased pressure on urban centers and refugee camps.

## International Efforts

International organizations and donor countries have played a crucial role in supporting Somalia's climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts. Key initiatives include:

1. Funding for Adaptation Projects: The Green Climate Fund, the United Nations Development Programme, and various bilateral donors have provided funding for projects that enhance Somalia's resilience to climate change, such as the construction of water infrastructure and the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices.

2. Capacity Building and Technical Assistance: International organizations have worked with the Somali government to strengthen its institutional capacity to address climate change, providing training and technical support for policy development and implementation.

3. Humanitarian Aid and Disaster Response: In the face of climate-related disasters, international agencies have delivered emergency humanitarian aid, including food, water, and shelter, to affected communities.

## National and Local Efforts

The Somali government, in collaboration with local authorities and communities, has also taken steps to address climate change:

1. National Adaptation Plan: The government has developed a National Adaptation Plan (NAP) that outlines strategies for enhancing the country's resilience to the impacts of climate change, including the diversification of livelihoods and the promotion of sustainable natural resource management.

2. Disaster Risk Reduction: The government, in partnership with local authorities, has implemented early warning systems and disaster preparedness plans to better respond to climate-related emergencies.

3. Community-Based Adaptation: Local communities, with the support of NGOs and government agencies, have undertaken initiatives to adapt to climate change, such as the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties and the establishment of community-managed water infrastructure.

## Challenges and the Way Forward

Despite these efforts, Somalia continues to face significant challenges in addressing the impacts of climate change, including:

1. Limited Financial Resources: The country's limited financial resources and reliance on international aid hamper its ability to scale up and sustain its climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts.

2. Weak Institutional Capacity: The Somali government's limited capacity to develop and implement effective climate policies and programs remains a major obstacle.

3. Ongoing Conflict and Instability: The persistent conflict and political instability in the country have disrupted the implementation of climate change interventions and hindered the coordination of efforts between different levels of government and stakeholders.

To overcome these challenges, a comprehensive and collaborative approach is needed, involving the Somali government, international partners, and local communities. This should include increased investment in climate-resilient infrastructure, the strengthening of institutional capacity, the integration of climate change considerations into development planning, and the empowerment of local communities to take ownership of adaptation strategies.

International Efforts:

1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

- Chad is a party to the UNFCCC and actively participates in its conferences.

- The country submits National Communications and Biennial Update Reports, outlining its climate actions and needs.

- The Green Climate Fund (GCF),

established under the UNFCCC, finances various projects in Chad aimed at enhancing resilience and reducing emissions.

2. World Bank and African Development Bank (AfDB):

- These institutions support Chad through funding and technical assistance for climate adaptation projects. Initiatives include improving water management systems, enhancing agricultural resilience, and developing sustainable infrastructure.

3. International NGOs:

- Organizations like Oxfam, CARE, and the Red Cross implement projects to support vulnerable communities. These projects focus on sustainable agriculture, water conservation, and disaster risk reduction.

National Efforts:

1. National Adaptation Plan (NAP):

- Chad has developed its NAP to identify and prioritize adaptation needs. The plan includes strategies for water resource management, agriculture, and infrastructure development to cope with climate impacts.

2. Climate Action Plan:

- The government’s action plan emphasizes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting renewable energy, and improving land use practices. Specific measures include reforestation programs and the promotion of solar energy.

Local Efforts:

1. Community-Based Adaptation Projects:

- Local communities are engaged in projects such as constructing water harvesting systems, planting drought-resistant crops, and creating early warning systems for floods. These initiatives are often supported by international and national agencies.

Examples of Specific Projects:

1. Strengthening Climate Resilience in the Lake Chad Basin:

- Supported by the GCF and the World Bank, this project aims to enhance water resource management and support livelihoods dependent on Lake Chad. Activities include restoring degraded lands and improving water infrastructure.

2. Building Resilience through Innovation:

- This project, funded by the AfDB, focuses on innovative agricultural practices and renewable energy solutions to improve food security and reduce vulnerability to climate change.

Drought in Somalia: International: adaptation: Somalia has integrated climate resilience into its policy framework. The country’s National Adaptation Plan (NAP) focuses on enhancing adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability to climate change. areas including agriculture, water resource management, public health, and disaster preparedness​ (World Resources Institute)​. are their top priority. This plan is aligned with Somalia’s National Development Plan and other strategic frameworks to ensure a coordinated and effective response. Mitigation: International mitigation efforts for drought in Somalia focus on immediate humanitarian aid and long-term resilience building. The UN and partners have launched significant relief plans, while USAID and the World Food Programme provide food and nutrition support. Initiatives like the World Bank's Drought Impact and Needs Assessment and Somalia's National Adaptation Plan, supported by the Green Climate Fund, aim to enhance water management, sustainable agriculture, and institutional capacity​ (World Bank)​​ (USAID)​.

Dykes have been a key focus of local government, international and national organisations, and communities to mitigate the impacts of floods and promote resilience. Earth-mound dykes are commonly used across South Sudan.23 The largest projects have focused on constructing dykes to protect Bentiu, Rubkona and Leer towns in Unity State and are discussed below.67 UN actors have prioritised these areas of Unity State (particularly Bentiu) because flooding is so severe and dyke-building on this scale is particularly challenging (see Figure 2 for an example). Bentiu suffers from fighting and urban destruction, and the city also hosts a large camp for IDPs populated mainly by ethnic Nuer people who face few settlement alternatives within the state and are highly vulnerable to attacks.

International organizations collaborate with local authorities in Sudan to tackle the challenges of droughts and floods by establishing early warning systems, developing infrastructure such as dams and irrigation systems, and providing capacity building through training programs in disaster preparedness and sustainable practices. In times of crisis, they join forces to deliver emergency response and relief efforts, distributing essential supplies and coordinating evacuation operations. Community engagement and education initiatives raise awareness about risks and mitigation strategies, while advocacy efforts aim to influence policy decisions at both national and local levels. Through this collaborative approach, they work towards building resilience and protecting livelihoods in vulnerable communities across Sudan.The Government of Sudan leads and coordinates the emergency response to the floods. The body responsible is the National Flood Mission Forces of the Humanitarian Aid Committee (HAC). The humanitarian community supports the HAC and the flood response through the sector system. This page pulls together the latest information on the situation, relevant humanitarian contacts, the emergency response plan and information about the ongoing response.

Based on this assessment, and recognizing the urgent need to rebuild its water sector, Sudan is working with the IDA to prepare three projects, focused on improving integrated water resources management, including WSS services; revitalizing irrigated agriculture; and increasing resilience through a regional project in the Horn of Africa. Importantly, the projects will also focus on building capacity for project implementation in the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources.

UNICEF is supporting thousands of families affected by the worst

floods to hit Sudan in over a century. Up to 770,000 people, including

462,000 children have been affected across Sudan’s 18 States.

More than 146,000 houses and 443 schools were either destroyed or

damaged, and some families are seeking shelter in schools, while

some others with extended families and neighbours. 

Somalia's drought on national level:

Adaptation:

Ministry of Energy and Water Resources,

established the new four-year project of Somalia's first National Hydro-Meteorological and Monitoring Service, to install automatic weather stations and monitoring equipment across the country and expand Somalia's existing flood and drought forecasting and early warning tools.

Mitigation:

UNICEF is working with partners to provide water trucking to displaced populations to ensure sustained access to safe water and to help prevent the spread of diseases. 

International Authorities

1. EU Funding and Humanitarian Support: The European Union (EU) provides funding to Central America to respond to emergencies, including floods, droughts, hurricanes, and population displacement. This funding helps vulnerable communities build resilience and supports projects that provide protection to displaced people and families affected by violence 

2. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Donor countries, including the United States and other nations, recognize the need to focus on climate change mitigation and adaptation in Latin America. By supporting clean development and helping countries adapt to the impacts of climate change, they aim to address the current challenges of droughts, floods, hurricanes, sea-level rise, and fires 

3. Refugees and Protection: Climate change-related disasters, such as prolonged droughts, floods, and hurricanes, can force people to leave their homes. Governments around the world, including the United States, are urged to adopt policies and conventions that consider climate refugees. Providing protection, technical assistance, and financial support to those displaced by climate change is crucial

National Authorities

1. Global Warming and Hydrological Extremes: Scientists have predicted that droughts and floods will become more frequent and severe as the planet warms and climate changes. This has tangible impacts on the water cycle, affecting people, the economy, and agriculture around the world. Monitoring hydrological extremes is crucial for preparing for future events, mitigating their impacts, and adapting

2. Climate Crisis Impact: The climate crisis is affecting Central America, leading to displacement due to foreseeable climate impacts like sea-level rise, extreme heat, drought, and crop failures caused by changing farming conditions. Sudden-onset disasters, including wildfires, major floods, and hurricanes, have forced people out of their homes, leading to internal migration. Slow-onset disasters, such as sea-level rise and unfavorable agricultural conditions, also contribute to the challenges faced by the region

Local Authorities

1. Climate Change Adaptation: There is a call for foreign aid to help Central American countries adapt to the impacts of climate change, such as droughts, floods, hurricanes, sea-level rise, and fires. This aid is intended to help these countries develop in a way that mitigates their future emissions while being cost-effective.

2. Disaster Preparedness: Disaster preparedness is integrated into almost all projects in the region, with targeted actions focusing on strengthening local communities and institutions to enable them to identify and respond to disasters

International Authorities

The formal process of drafting a National Adaptation Plan (NAP) to increase climate change resistance has been initiated by Pakistan. The National Adaptation Plan (NAP), which aims to increase the nation's ability to support adaptation at all governance levels, is seen as a critical tool for responding to climate change.

Additionally, it aims to improve the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the 2015 Paris Agreement's adaptation components.

The National Action Plan (NAP) aims to create a Pakistan that is resilient to climate change by minimising social and economic divides. It seeks to promote social, economic, and environmental resilience in order to improve sustainable development for communities that are at risk. The plan describes the initiatives and guiding concepts for Pakistan's adaption procedures.

The NAP has drawn criticism for lacking clear, effective tactics and tangible action, even with its lofty aims. Coordination, capacity building, resource allocation, community participation, and governance are among the challenges that experts have identified. The strategy has also drawn criticism for failing to take into account current developmental goals enough.

and for shifting financial accountability to provinces without allocating funds for adaptation-related projects in their budgets. The implementation of the strategy is hampered by the low capability of pertinent provincial institutions.

Building community capacity is crucial to maintaining climate adaption efforts and being adequately prepared for disasters. In order to conduct research on climate resistant technologies appropriate for Pakistan, it is necessary to identify and form partnerships with regional research institutes and universities. Finding investment possibilities in climate adaptivity might include the commercial sector.