This is the very beginning of what may become long-term memory. And I say “may” become long-term memory because it's what we do to ensure the repetition of practice creates a pathway that becomes long-term memory.

Our long-term memory doesn't have a specific percentage of long-term memory that we use," because our memory storage isn't like a hard drive; it’s dynamic and associative. Access to memories depends on background knowledge, context, cues, emotions, and neural connectivity—not just capacity.

We use 100% of our brain, over time. Brain imaging (fMRI, PET) shows that almost all brain areas show activity—even during sleep.

If you needed to quantify the Long-term memory capacity of our brains, it is not easily quantifiable. Some neuroscientists estimate the brain could store up to 2.5 petabytes of information (that’s 2.5 million GB).

What is key for us to know about long-term memory is that we need to access it regularly to make it concrete. The best metaphor for this is the example of a bush walking track. The more it is walked, the more defined the path becomes. If it is not retraced often enough, it becomes overgrown and the path is lost and hard to follow.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

• Definition: The temporary storage of small amounts of information over a brief period (about 15–30 seconds).
  

• Capacity: Traditionally thought to hold 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956), though more recent research suggests 4–5 items is more accurate.
  

• Usage: We use 100% of our short-term memory capacity during tasks, but the actual capacity is limited.

Working Memory (WM)

• Definition: A mental workspace that allows us to store and manipulate information in real time.
  

• Capacity: Roughly 4 chunks of information for most adults.
  

• Used in:

  • Mental math

  • Following multi-step instructions

  • Reading comprehension

  • Problem-solving

    
    

You use your entire working memory capacity during cognitive tasks, but it’s very limited and easily overloaded, especially under stress, distraction, or cognitive load.

So, how much do we use?

• We use all of our working and short-term memory capacity—but that capacity itself is small.
  

• Most people max out their working memory multiple times a day without even realising it. When we’re overwhelmed or “can’t think straight,” our working memory is overloaded.

• We need to consider in our design of teaching, we need to reduce Extraneous Cognitive Load. This is the mental effort imposed by the way information is presented or taught—often unnecessary or poorly designed.

• The Germane Cognitive Load is the productive mental effort used to construct and refine mental models or schemas used during learning.

So what does this mean? Our lessons need to be carefully designed and the processes we teach refined to reduce unnecessary clutter and carefully scaffolded.

Working memory draws on long-term memory to help process, compare, and retrieve information. With repetition and rehearsal, short-term/working memory items can be encoded into long-term memory.

Rosenshine’s Principle #2: Present new material in small steps.

When we break instructions into short, manageable parts, we reduce cognitive load and give students the best chance to succeed.

We should also check for understanding frequently, which is Rosenshine’s Principle #3.

Rosenshine’s Principle #6: Use visual models and scaffolds.

By pairing verbal instruction with visual cues or physical manipulatives, we support memory and comprehension.

The number of "learning hits" (i.e., exposures or repetitions) needed for a new concept to be learned and retained varies widely between individuals, but research gives us some general guidance when comparing typical learners to learners with neurodiverse learners.

Typical Learners

• Often need 5–15 quality exposures to a new concept for it to become embedded in long-term memory.
  

• This depends on:

  • Cognitive load

  • Prior knowledge

  • Teaching strategy

  • Engagement and motivation

Learners with Neurodiverse or Cognitive Needs

• Typically require more repetitions—around 2 to 3 times more than typical learners.
  

• That could mean 15–45+ meaningful exposures, depending on:

  • The complexity of the concept

  • Language demands (receptive and expressive language may be delayed)

  • Working memory limitations

  • The use of visuals, signs, or concrete materials to support learning
    

Working memory is often significantly impacted in children with neurodiverse or cognitive needs, especially verbal working memory, so repetition and multisensory input is key.

We need to model strategies explicitly (Rosenshine Principle #4) and provide guided practice (Principle #5) using tools like repetition, visual reminders, and routines.

We also need to give learners many opportunities for independent practice, but only after enough scaffolding and success during I Do > We Do (guided) sessions.

Practical Strategies

In line to Rosenshine’s principles in practice:

Use visual supports (adjunct aids) and annotated LIs and SCs, with student voice, to reduce load.

Provide step-by-step instructions with repetition and schemas that break down the learning, which are displayed to reference.

Use consistent routines to build memory through familiarity.

Model - I Do > We Do > You Do