Maria had an impact on how education was taught throughout the globe. It started in Europe and quickly spread to the western hemisphere. Her efforts to make grace and peace the center of the classroom intrigued leaders in Europe and eventually in the United States to adopt her methods and build schools in her name.

"Montessori’s academic benefits spread throughout the European continent and then to the rest of the world.

In the United States, news of Montessori education had spread far and wide by 1911."

https://elementary.cgms.edu/pluginfile.php/314099/mod_resource/content/2/Montessori%20in%20America.pdf

Maria Montessori- The Reformer

https://elementary.cgms.edu/pluginfile.php/314098/mod_resource/content/2/The%20Montessori%20Way%20-%20Compressed.pdf

A Montessori guide must always be intuit of a child's sensitive periods and should use these temporary moments to tap into a child's ability to focus. Paying attention to these teachable moments will allow for a child's "inner teacher" to shine through.

https://elementary.cgms.edu/pluginfile.php/314115/mod_resource/content/4/Microsoft_Word_-_Guiding_Principles.pdf

https://elementary.cgms.edu/pluginfile.php/314136/mod_resource/content/2/Sensitive_Periods.pdf

The characteristics and tendencies that exist from birth that drive us throughout our lives include, "movement, curiosity, exploration, orientation, order, gregariousness, independence, communication, self-control, exactness, repetition, perfections, calculation, work, imitation, concentration, abstraction and creative imagination".

The environment we prepare in our classrooms should always nurture the development of the child. The classroom environment should provide ongoing opportunities for children to tap into their characteristics and natural human tendencies. Teachers need to make sure to not stand in the way, but to help pave the way for students to reach their fullest potential.

https://montessoriparenting.org/fundamental-human-tendencies/

https://elementary.cgms.edu/pluginfile.php/314134/mod_resource/content/2/Influences_on_Human_Development.pdf

Whitescarver, Keith. "Montessori In America". Montessori International, 2010.

Seldin, Tim and Epstein, Paul. The Montessori Way. Todd Allen Printing Company Inc., 2003.

Center for Guided Montessori Studies

Bravo, Kitty. 2008. Sensitive Periods. CGMS.

Tuckova, Michaela. Fundamental Human Tendencies. Montessori Parenting. 2023. Montessoriparenting.org

Bravo, Kitty. 2008. Influences on Human Development. CGMS.

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Jacobs, Jane. Ideas and Insights: The Three-Period Lesson. Montessori Services, 2024, MontessoriServices.com. Accessed 29 April 2024.

Epstein, Paul. An Observer's Notebook. Bradenton, Montessori Foundation, 2012.

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Montessori, Maria. The Advanced Montessori Method. Fredrick A. Stokes Company, 1917.

Lillard, Angeline. "Why the time is ripe for an education revolution." Frontiersin.org, .https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/developmental-psychology/articles/10.3389/fdpys.2023.1177576/full?utm_source=Email_to_authors_&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&utm_campaign=Email_publication&field&journalName=Frontiers_in_Developmental_Psychology&id=1177576. 13 September 2024.

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Montessori, M. (1949). The Absorbent Mind. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

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Huneke-Stone, Elise. "Grace and Courtesy in the Elementary Community." The NAMTA Journal, vol. 40, no. 1, Winter 2015, pp. 84.

Hainstock, Elizabeth G. The Essential Montessori: An Introduction to the Montessori Method. Plume, 1997.

Montessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind. Translated by Claude A. Claremont, Holt, 1995.

Maria Montessori (2003). “The Montessori Method”, p.71, Barnes & Noble Publishing

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Erikson, Erik H. Childhood and Society. Norton, 1950. 

Piaget, Jean. The Origins of Intelligence in Children. Norton, 1952.

Montessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind. Holt, 1995.

Lillard, Angeline Stoll. Montessori: The Science Behind the Genius. Oxford UP, 2017.

This method of cognitive learning is meant to increase a child's self-reliance and independence. This stage of development occurs between the ages of 0-6. During infancy, a baby hasn't developed the ability to distinguish the sounds and words they hear from the new objects they are seeing. For example, to an infant, the word "mama" might be used by the baby for many things and not just a word they use to identify their mother. As the baby grows into a toddler, they will use their five senses as they explore the world and will begin to make connections between words and objects. Suddenly, the sounds they make begin to form words... and then those words will become attached to objects for identification... and finally the child will make meaning as he/she begins to store this information in their long-term memory.

In the first plane of development, a three-period lesson is introduced to a child by the teacher stating the name of new objects. The teacher will say, "This is a _____". During the second-period, the child will then show that they can recognize or identify the item by point to it. The teacher might say, "Show me the _____". The third piece of the three-period lesson is the final step, when the child is expected to remember and recall what the object is. The teacher might assess the student by saying, "What is this?".

Jacobs, Jane. Ideas and Insights: The Three-Period Lesson. Montessori Services, 2024, MontessoriServices.com. Accessed 29 April 2024.

The three-period lesson looks a little bit different for children who are in the second plane of development (ages 6-12 years old). During the first-period lesson, the teacher presents the key lesson to the student(s). Then, the child is given time to practice using the material during the second-period lesson. Lastly, during the third-period, the student will choose a modality to demonstrate understanding of the concept. For example, they can choose to create a collage, form interview questions, do a research project, create a work for other students to do that mirrors the concept, etc.

The first part of the observation process is to CONNECT. When we are thinking about this step, it is important to consider, "What am I interested in knowing, what do I want to learn about and study" (Epstein 23)?

Some good questions to start with:

• What are the child's different learning styles?

• How is the child growing academically?

• Is my prepared environment capturing the child's interests?

• Why are some unwanted behaviors occurring in specific students?

The next step of the observation process is to OBTAIN. This is the collection of information based on our end goal. We need to think about what method would be best to yield the desired results.

Here are some examples (Epstein 77):

• Journals

• Physical Maps

• Anecdotal Records

• Running Records

• Checklists

• Rating Scales

• Time Samples

• Ethnographic Procedures

• Interviewing

As we are collecting information, we should try to be as objective as possible. Remember, anything you write down can be used if an adverse situation were to arise. It is important to always remember to date and time stamp your observations. This way you can monitor progression.

The third step in the process of observation is to REFLECT. We should think about how we will dissect and understand the information that we have obtained. It is important to have an open mind while reflecting so that we can take the new information and make beneficial changes where it is fitting. Or maybe we see that we need to continue observing and collecting new information before we can make changes. Regardless, we should be willing to put a new lens on our perspective based on the information we have obtained.

The final step in the observation process is to ENGAGE. "When we engage we purposefully guide and facilitate each child's growth (Epstein 136)." It is important for us to implement a plan of action to engage a student in their academic growth.

Upper Elementary: "The Montessori materials and lessons are interconnected across subjects and levels, and arranged methodically in classrooms. Learning occurs because of the interplay between child and the resulting environments, guided by an observant, loving, and well-prepared teacher" (Lillard 2024). When the upper elementary classroom is prepared to provide students with an educational experience that facilitates freedom within limits, students become self-motivated and can make responsible decisions about their work. The material on the shelf should allow the students to dive deeper into research topics that are elicited by students own interests. This carefully designed environment will promote order and structure.

A well-prepared teacher that creates a well-prepared, interdiscipinary environment will inevitably create students who understand their place in the world.

Materialized Abstraction:

Students should be introduced to new concepts using material that is tangible. The physical manipulation of objects allow the seed to be planted within the child so that they can move into abstraction as they practice the lesson over and over again. For example, in geometry, when students use Constructive Triangles to physically construct various shapes and understand the relationships between them, with practice, they will eventually be able to visualize these shapes and their relationships without having the objects physically accessible.

Work of the child- Elements that make a material didactic:

A didactic material is one that is student-driven. Once the teacher has given the lesson, the student should be able to conduct the lesson on their own. Montessori materials are inherently didactic because they are structured to encourage self-directed learning and hands-on exploration. Didactic material offers the child a way to self-correct and fix their mistakes with minimal assistance from the teacher. Also, the isolation of difficulty must be present. The material should intentionally teach the child one skill at a time. Eliminating the variables will help students to focus on the material until they have mastered the concept.

As a Montessori teacher one of the most important roles you take on is to become the observer. In doing this, a teacher can truly learn to follow the child through lessons that are catered to each child's interest. They can also learn students' individual learning preferences. Do they prefer certain areas of the classroom to work? Do they like to work alone, with a partner or in a group? What is their preferred way to show their learning (through art, or through writing, or by constructing a model).

As a collaborator with students and other teachers in the room, a Montessori teacher can foster a collaborative atmosphere amongst the students. This will enable children to learn from each other and engage in peer interactions.

The transformation of the teacher allows for them to become the top role model in the classroom. As the teacher embodies the value of respect, patience, and a love for learning, the students will want to follow suit. The nurturing tone that is set in the Montessori classroom will allow a child's innate curiosity and creativity to blossom. This will open the door for students to become lifelong learners.

As Montessori teachers we should keep in mind that every day is a great day and a necessary day to include grace and courtesy lessons in our plans. We should be creating an environment that is ever changing to meet the social, moral and intellectual growth of our students. Maria Montessori believed that development is not just an individual process but is shaped by the social world around the child. To help our students grow, our grace and courtesy lessons should match their specific needs. Their need to learn, their need to be social, their need to be comforted, their need to feel safe. Some ways to do this is to include practicing role-playing social scenarios to relate to situations that students encounter on a regular basis. For example, we can foster growth in problem-solving by having students act out disagreements and discuss peaceful resolutions. Another way to encourage grace and courtesy in the classroom is to address responsibility by teaching students how to care for shared spaces and emphasizing ways to help others throughout the day. Lastly, we should be encouraging students to practice active listening and showing respect by teaching them how to make eye contact and turn to the person who is speaking and be patient and timely with their respond. What is most essential is to give students the opportunity to practice. According to Elise Huneke-Stone,

“Practice means the children are engaging in something that they haven’t already mastered, that they’re going to need to work at, and improve, and make an intentional effort towards. And this means

there are going to be mistakes, social mistakes.” (pg. 84)

Record Keeping:

Keeping careful observations should always be a Montessori teacher’s daily goal. Through observations we can note our student’s progress, interests, and challenges. Teachers can also note the lessons that have been presented and how the student’s responded to the presentation. Were they engaged? Did they need more guidance? Did they seem to master the skill? What follow up lessons did the students choose to do? These observations can be used to guide student reports, parent-teacher conferences, and lesson planning. Students can also keep their own checklists, work journals and portfolios to document the completed lessons and independent works they have done. Another valuable record keeping resource are the students’ work plans and journals.  These systems can help children develop independence and accountably.

Rights and Responsibilities:

At the beginning of each school year, it is very important for the children and teachers to collaborate on what the “rights and responsibilities” of the classroom should be. This could be in the form of a classroom constitution that holds the signature of all the students in agreeance. This will help to create the balance in the environment where students can experience freedom within limits while respecting others and their learning space. Laying this foundation for the school year will allow your classroom to develop independence, accountability, and a sense of community.

Our classrooms are made up of children from mixed age groups and abilities. This creates the perfect setting for students to practice their community building skills. Students can learn to respect other children who are older than them, who are younger than them, who have mixed abilities, children who are of different ethnicity and different gender. This ideal environment can only be utilized when teachers make a daily effort to encourage collaboration and not competition. Montessori classrooms should foster intrinsic motivation through activities that require students to work as a team instead of as an individual.

"Discipline must come through liberty. . . . We do not consider an individual disciplined only when he has been rendered as artificially silent as a mute and as immovable as a paralytic. He is an individual annihilated, not disciplined."

-Maria Montessori

For students to be disciplined does not mean that they must be imposed on by authority. Instead, it is something that develops within the child that promotes freedom and exploration. This happens when children are engaged in meaningful work. The Montessori school challenges the idea of expecting students to be still and be quiet which is expected within traditional school settings. Students should be given ample opportunities to regulate themselves though purposeful activities.

Erik Erikson developed a theory of eight psychosocial stages of development, which describe the interaction between individual growth and societal expectations. These stages include Infancy (0-1 year), Early Childhood (1-3 years), Play Age (3-6 years), School Age (7-11 years), Adolescence (12-18 years), Early Adulthood (19-29 years), Middle Age (30-64 years), and Old Age (65+ years). Erikson proposed that at each stage, individuals experience a psychosocial challenge, which can shape their personality in either a positive or negative way.

During the Play Age (3-6 years), Erikson emphasized that children seek independence and initiative in tasks and activities. If supported, they develop confidence; if discouraged, they may feel guilt over their efforts. Similarly, School Age (7-11 years) is characterized by the drive to develop self-confidence in skills but also a sense of inferiority when faced with challenges. Adolescence (12-18 years) is a period of identity exploration, where young people try to understand their roles in society. Erikson introduced the term "identity crisis" to describe the struggles of this stage (Erikson 120).

Montessori education aligns with Erikson’s stages in many ways, particularly in its emphasis on independence, hands-on learning, and a prepared environment that supports natural development. In our Montessori classrooms we have practical life activities in early childhood that promote initiative and independence. that align with Erickson’s Play Age. Erikson and Montessori’s philosophies also overlap in that they allow students to explore responsibilities and social roles. However, there are also key differences: Montessori classrooms focus on intrinsic motivation whereas Erickson’s theory focuses on the role of external social influences that shape development. Also, Montessori environments try to minimize competition and encourage collaboration rather than comparing between students.

Understanding Erikson’s theory alongside Montessori principles can enhance our teaching by encouraging young children to take initiative by providing them with freedom within limits. Also, we should support hands-on learning and projects and encourage meaningful work. This will minimize feelings of inferiority amongst our students. Lastly, both philosophers encourage educators to engage in real-world problem-solving to help children navigate their identity in a positive way.  By integrating both Erikson’s insights and Montessori’s approach, educators can support the child’s emotional and cognitive development holistically.

Jean Piaget’s Connections to Montessori Philosophy:

Jean Piaget profoundly influenced the field of cognitive development, particularly through his theory of four distinct stages of development:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) – Infants explore the world through their senses and motor actions.

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) – Children begin to develop symbolic thinking but struggle with logic and perspective-taking.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) – Logical thinking emerges, allowing children to classify and organize information systematically.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years) – Abstract and hypothetical thinking develop, enabling problem-solving beyond concrete experiences.(Piaget 45)

Montessori education shares several similarities with Piaget’s theory. Both Piaget and Montessori emphasize hands-on, experiential learning as pivotal for cognitive development. Piaget’s stages of development align with Montessori’s planes of development by focusing on specific skills and learning approaches (Lillard 144). Both approaches also emphasize the importance of students being independent and self-directing their learning.  Montessori and Piaget did have some differences in their way of thinking. Piaget believed children progress through fixed stages of cognition whereas Montessori saw it as more fluid (Montessori). Moreover, Maria Montessori encouraged mixed-age classrooms whereas Piaget focuses on development as an individual process.

By integrating Piaget’s insights with Montessori principles, educators can provide concrete experiences for students. The materials on our Montessori shelves align with Piaget’s sensorimotor and preoperational stages by supporting active, hands-on learning. When teachers take the tie to fully understand both Piaget’s developmental stages and Montessori’s approach to learning, they can create rich, engaging environments that nurture each child’s cognitive and emotional growth at their own pace.

The "Cosmic Curriculum" typically refers to an educational approach inspired by the Montessori method. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things and encourages children to understand the universe as a whole, fostering curiosity and a sense of wonder about the world around them.

The Cosmic Curriculum includes science, history, geography, and cultural studies. The goal is to show how everything is interconnected and aims to cultivate a child’s appreciation for the natural world, foster a sense of responsibility, and instill a lifelong love of learning.

In a Montessori classroom, this curriculum might include lessons on the solar system, the origins of life, the history of civilization, and how humans interact with the environment and each other. Montessori teachers guide students through these topics with hands-on materials, stories, and projects that deepen their understanding of the world’s processes and systems.

The Spiral Curriculum

"The child’s mind is capable of absorbing knowledge that is introduced to them in stages, each stage building upon the last, to make a deeper and more meaningful understanding of the world around them."
— Maria Montessori, The Absorbent Mind

The Spiral Curriculum is an approach to teaching where key ideas and concepts are revisited over time, but each time with a little more complexity. Instead of just teaching something once and moving on, you circle back to it at different points in a child's education, helping them build on what they already know. It is like planting seeds that grow over time. You learn something once, then come back to it later, but each time you dig a little deeper, adding more details. A great example of the Spiral Curriculum in action is how fractions are taught over the years. In primary, students might start by learning about fractions using something simple, like cutting an apple in half to understand 1/2. In lower elementary, they come back to fractions but now learn how to add and subtract them with the same denominator, using number lines to make it clearer. By the time students are in upper elementary, they revisit fractions again, this time dealing with things like improper fractions and mixed numbers, and start learning how to multiply and divide them. Then, in middle school students apply fractions to more complex stuff, like algebra and real-world problems. Each time, students build on what they already know, so by the end, they have a much deeper understanding of fractions and how to use them.