According to the IFRC, unusual physical changes around volcanoes that are paramount to learn and recognize include:

• Ash fall or increased ash fall

• Vegetation drying up

• Earthquakes

• Landslides

• Increased foul smells from the volcano

• And most noticeable is a rumbling sound or increased noise.

  
  

According to Gottsmann (2015), five primary observational indicators of volcanic unrest can be analysed:

1. Ground deformation: Restless volcanoes often undergo periods of ground uplift or subsidence driven for example by pressure changes in their magma reservoir or overlying geothermal reservoir. In some cases pressure increase may break the ground surface. Ground deformation is generally recorded by ground or space-borne techniques.

2. Degassing: Plumes of gas may be released from craters or other vents (fumaroles) on a volcanic edifice craters. Alternatively, the amount of gas released may increase or the chemical composition of gases may change over time. Ground and space-borne techniques are usually applied to monitor degassing behaviour.

3. Changes at a crater lake: These changes include variations in lake temperature, lake levels, level of water chemistry, lake colour and gas release and are generally recorded using ground- based or air-borne techniques.

4. Thermal anomaly: Anomalous temperature changes of the ground or of fumarolic gases can be recorded by ground-based, air or space-borne sensors.

5. Seismicity: The movement of magma, fluids and gas can cause seismic signals at restless volcanoes as does the breaking of rock from stress increases at depth. Particular seismic wave forms are generated from such processes which may provide clues as to what is driving unrest at a particular volcano. Seismic observations are generally made on the ground.

   
   

"SIGNS" OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION IN OUR POSTER:

• “Shriveled flora” refers to plants experiencing reduced health and possible death due to exposure to increased heat, lack of water, or the direct influence of volcanic gases and dust. When a volcano becomes active, temperatures rise and volcanic ash can settle on plant surfaces, causing damage and death to surrounding vegetation.

• "Increased temperature" is a sign that can occur before or during an eruption. Magma activity below the surface can cause an increase in temperature around the volcano. Additionally, the eruption itself can release significant heat into the surrounding environment, causing an increase in air and ground temperatures.

• “Ground shakes” are one of the early signs that often occur before or during a volcanic eruption. Volcanic earthquakes are caused by the movement of magma beneath the surface and can occur repeatedly or in a series called foreshocks. This ground shaking can be felt as vibrations or shaking in the ground.

• "Natural animal movement" is a phenomenon in which animals around a volcano begin to move or experience unusual behavioral changes before or during an eruption. This may be due to their natural instinct to flee from perceived danger or due to changes in their environment that cause discomfort or stress.

• “Spring dryness” refers to the decline or drying up of water sources, such as springs or rivers, which can occur as a direct result of volcanic eruptions. Volcanic ash submerged in rivers or water sources can block water flows, while rising temperatures can increase evaporation and reduce the volume of available water.

• Contaminate water supplies.

• Damage machinery.

• Reduce visibility through smog and harmful gases that may threaten low-lying areas.

• Make it hard to breathe and irritate the skin, eyes, nose and throat.

Short Term Health Impact:

• Respiratory Tract Irritations: Volcanic ash can cause irritation of the respiratory tract, increasing the risk of infection, and worsening asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

• Burns and Injuries: Eruptions can cause burns due to pyroclastic flows and contact with hot volcanic material.

• Mental Health Disorders: Stress, anxiety, and trauma resulting from evacuation and homelessness.

• Gas poisoning: Toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide at low levels, the gas can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat.
  

Long Term Health Impact:

• Respiratory Disorders: Long-term exposure to volcanic dust can increase the risk of lung disease and chronic respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and emphysema.

• Mental Health Disorders: Long-term psychological trauma resulting from loss, evacuation, and socio-economic changes.

• Gas poisoning: Toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide at higher levels, the gas can cause rapid breathing, headaches, dizziness, throat swelling and spasms, poisoning and even death.

• Clean Water Crisis: Pollution of drinking water sources due to volcanic ash and eruptive material.

  
  

Health Effects

Injury and death are caused by a range of volcanic hazards which can be summarised by their impact on the body:

Primary Effects:

1. Mechanical injury where the body is crushed. Explosive eruptions may produce large volumes of fragmented rock, which range in size from boulders to fine ash. Mechanical injury/death occurs from a range of volcanic processes relating to the ejection of material and its transport through air or water (lahars, rock avalanches, ballistics). Roof collapse is also a common crushing injury, from the weight of ashfall, particularly on flat. Occasionally those proximal to the volcano may be buried by deposits or suffer asphyxiation from inhalation of particles.

2. Thermal injury (burns) caused by hot volcanic emissions. These take the form of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) and surges (composed of searing gas, ash and rocks), lava flows and hydrothermal waters (which are used for recreational bathing). In most PDC-related deaths, severe burns to the skin (cutaneous) and airways (resulting in pulmonary oedema) cause immediate mortality, or delayed mortality from respiratory complications and infection.

3. Toxicological effects where emissions react with the body. Gases, ash and aerosols may be inhaled or ingested. A range of potentially-toxic elements may leach from particles. Cases of poisoning have been associated primarily with high levels of bioaccessible fluorine in ash, particularly for livestock which may ingest large quantities of ash during grazing. The surfaces of the mineral particles themselves may be reactive in the lung, particularly if the ash is rich in crystalline silica or iron. Potentially toxic elements, in particular fluorine, may present issues in some eruptions if ash contaminates water supplies. However, experience has shown that more common problems include ash blocking and restricting access to livestock drinking water, causing drinking water to become unpalatable and causing water shortages during clean-up operations.

4. Electrical impact. Lightning, generated from friction of particles in the ash plume, may strike people directly or trigger fires.

   
   

Secondary Effects:

1. Disease from poor sanitation

2. Mental stress and other psychological disorders related to displacement and violence

3. Famine from crop failure, loss of livestock, and contamination of water from ashfall and gas impact

4. Hazardous clean-up

5. Impediment of primary healthcare response due to impacted infrastructure.

   
   

Common Causes of Death due to Volcanic Hazards:

• Pyroclastic density currents (PDCs: inclusive of pyroclastic flows, surges and blasts): PDCs can reach distances of several kilometres and tens of kilometres in large explosive eruptions. In general, PDCs move too quickly for people to escape and death is almost certain for those caught by a PDC. Deaths commonly result from thermal injury (including laryngeal and pulmonary oedema), asphyxiation and impact or blast trauma.

• Tsunami: These can result from the rapid entrance of debris avalanches, PDCs or other volcanic products into a water body, earthquakes accompanying eruptions, submarine eruptions, caldera collapse, or even volcanic shock waves. Tsunami can devastate distant shorelines and wash kilometres inland.

• Tephra: Tephra can be transported and deposited hundreds, or even thousands, of kilometres from the volcano. Deaths typically occur in proximal areas of thick deposition, through roof collapse, asphyxiation and burial. Airborne ash can aggravate pulmonary conditions such as asthma.

• Ballistics: Ballistics (large ejected clasts of a few cm size or above) are typically restricted to within 5 km of the vent and deaths and injuries are typically due to trauma from direct impacts.

• Avalanche (inclusive of debris avalanches, sector collapse and landslides): These result from the collapse of unstable edifices due to seismicity, eruption or intense rainfall. Avalanches discharging into lakes or oceans can generate tsunami; resultant fatalities are classified under tsunami.

• Lava flows: Lavas normally advance slowly, allowing escape, but sudden effusions of very fluid lavas can cause loss of life. Deaths and injuries typically arise if escape routes are cut off, or as small explosions occur through interaction with water, vegetation or fuel.

• Gas: Various gases are emitted at volcanoes during or between eruptions, including gases that can be harmful to health (e.g. carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, carbon monoxide).

• Lightning: Volcanic lightning is a common feature of volcanic ash clouds, especially in larger explosive eruptions.

• Indirect fatalities include accidents, for example related to evacuation or unsafe driving conditions, heart attacks and cascading hazards such as famine and disease. Indirect deaths can occur over great distances and over considerable time periods after an eruption.

Before Eruption: Plan and prepare

• Keep yourself updated on any warnings or instructions by authorities. 

• Listen for disaster sirens and warning signals, and tune in the radio or television for updates.

• Prepare for an emergency supply kit as advised by the CDC which includes the following:

  • water (one gallon per person per day for several days, for drinking and sanitation)

  • food (at least several-day supply of non-perishable food)

  • battery powered radio

  • flashlight, extra batteries, whistle

  • first aid kit

  • respiratory protection

  • eye protection 

  • plastic sheeting and duct tape (to shelter in place)

  • moist towelettes, garbage bag, and plastic ties (for personal sanitation)

  • wrench or pliers (to turn off utilities)

  • manual can opener (to open food)

  • essential medicines

  • local maps

  • cell phone with chargers and a backup battery

• Plan for your evacuation

• Plan a route to avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream of the volcano which may carry lahars and debris. Follow recommended routes. 

  
  

During Eruption: Stay Prepared

• Keep listening for alerts and, depending on your location, you may be advised to evacuate or take shelter.

• Avoid areas downwind or river valleys downstream of the volcano.

• Evacuate immediately if advised. 

• Take only essential items. Disconnect appliances to reduce the likelihood of electrical shock when power is restored.

• If advised, take shelter.

• Close all doors, windows, and fireplace or wood stove dampers; and turn off all fans and heating and air conditioning systems to keep ash and gasses from getting into your house.

  
  

After Eruption: Prevent and Protect

• Wait for further instructions from authorities and keep listening for updates. 

• If you take shelter indoors, wait until local health officials tell you it is safe to go outside. If you evacuate, wait until officials tell you it is safe to return home. 

• Close all doors, windows, and fireplace or wood stove dampers; and turn off all fans and heating and air conditioning systems to keep ash and gases from getting into your house.

• Stay away from ashfall areas, if possible. Avoid contact with ash as much as you can. People with asthma and/or other lung conditions should take precaution in areas with poor air quality, as it can worsen symptoms. Stay indoors and follow your asthma management plan.

• Wear protective equipment (an N95 respirator, gloves, long-sleeve shirts, long pants, shoes, socks, and goggles). N95 respirators do not filter toxic gasses and vapours.

• Avoid driving in heavy ash. Driving will stir up volcanic ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles.

• Throw out food exposed to ash, heat, smoke, fumes, or chemicals.

"PROTECTION" IN OUR POSTER:

P: Pay attention to warnings

Warnings here refer to disaster sirens, any kind of instructions from local government officials, and news updates pertaining to the volcanic eruption on television or radio. Basically, warnings are orders or advice that direct the people living near the volcanoes to safety.

R: Remain vigilant to disaster signals

Disaster signals refer to the natural signs that precedes a volcanic eruption such as vegetation drying up, increased temperature at the crater lake, ground shakes and rumbling caused by the increased volcanic activity, animal movements in response to the volcano, landslides, and foul smells of gasses. 

O: Organise an emergency supply kit

Emergency supply kit is imperative as a precautionary measure should a volcanic eruption come. An emergency supply kit should at least consist of the following,

water, food, first aid, hygiene, and clothing

• water (one gallon per person per day for several days, for drinking and sanitation)

• food (at least several-day supply of non-perishable food)

• battery powered radio

• flashlight, extra batteries, whistle

• first aid kit

• respiratory protection

• eye protection 

• plastic sheeting and duct tape (to shelter in place)

• moist towelettes, garbage bag, and plastic ties (for personal sanitation)

• wrench or pliers (to turn off utilities)

• manual can opener (to open food)

• essential medicines

• local maps

• cell phone with chargers and a backup battery

  
  

T: Take shelter indoors

Taking shelter indoors is usually the advised course of action when no further instruction has been ordered by local government officials. In this case, you should stay in your house, closing all doors, windows, vents, and fireplace and wood stove dampers; and turn off all fans and heating and air conditioning systems to keep ash and gases from getting into your house. All the while, it is still very imperative to keep listening for alerts and further instructions.

E: Exercise caution in hazardous areas

This includes planning and preparing for an evacuation route. Follow recommended routes and avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream which may carry lahars and debris. 

C: Consider immediate evacuation

If advised by the authorities, you should immediately evacuate. Take only essential items and make sure to disconnect appliances to reduce the likelihood of electrical shock when power is restored.

T: Take caution on roads covered with ash

Avoid driving in heavy ash. Driving will stir up volcanic ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles.

I: Inquire professional help

One of the indirect impacts of volcanic eruption is mental stress and psychological disorders related to displacement and violence because when a whole group of people are brought together in evacuation camps, there is a high chance that some of them will develop mental stress from the thought of displacement and homelessness due to the disaster. Therefore, it is crucial to provide professional assistance such as psychological first aid and crisis counselling to the evacuees.

O: Operate safely with water usage

Before an eruption comes, you should prepare all the necessary emergency supplies such as water and food. Collect and store clean water and food in closed containers (between 20 to 30 litres, i.e. 5 to 7 gallons per person in the household) to avoid contamination from volcanic ash. 

N: Never neglect protective gear

Wear protective equipment (an N95 respirator, gloves, long-sleeve shirts, long pants, shoes, socks, and goggles). N95 respirators do not filter toxic gases and vapours. Wear goggles to protect your eyes. Those who use contact lens should

remove them and wear glasses to prevent corneal abrasion. Wear masks to protect against lung irritation from small particles. If masks are unavailable use a (damp) handkerchief or cloth over your nose and mouth.

It’s SIGNS, IMPACT, PROTECTION

What is it?~

When there is eruption

Know the signs

What signs? 2x

THE SIGNS!!

S...Shriveled flora

and I...Increased temperature

and G…Ground shakes

and N…Natural animal movement

S…Spring dryness

Those are the five signs you need to remember!!

What should we worry about?

THE IMPACT

When there is eruption

You must know

What is it? 2x

THE IMPACT

I…Irritation in the respiratory tract

M…Mental health disorders

P…Poisoning gas

A…Ash and debris rain down

C…Clean water crisis

and the last is T…Terrain instability 

Prevent it with PROTECTION!

What? Protection? What is it?

When there is eruption don’t forget your PROTECTION 2x

Before the eruption we should do

P R O ~

P…Pay attention to warnings

R….Remain vigilant for disaster signals

O…Organize an emergency supply kit

P R O ~

During the eruption we should do

T E C ~

T…Take shelter indoors

E…Exercise caution in hazardous areas

C…Consider immediately evacuation

T E C ~

After the eruption we should do

T I O N ~ 2x

T…Take caution on roads covered in ash

I…Inquire professional help

O…Operate safely with water usage 

N…Never neglect protective gear

T I O N ~ 2x

When there is eruption now you know your PROTECTION! 2x

[So, those are 3 things you need to know when there is an eruption. Don’t panic if a volcanic eruption comes. With recognizing the SIGNS, we can prevent the IMPACT with PRO…TEC…TION!]

Deep within the Earth it is so hot that some rocks slowly melt and become a thick flowing substance called magma. Since it is lighter than the solid rock around it, magma rises and collects in magma chambers. Eventually, some of the magma pushes through vents and fissures to the Earth's surface. Magma that has erupted is called lava.

Some volcanic eruptions are explosive and others are not. The explosivity of an eruption depends on the composition of the magma. If magma is thin and runny, gases can escape easily from it. When this type of magma erupts, it flows out of the volcano. A good example is the eruptions at Hawaii’s volcanoes. Lava flows rarely kill people because they move slowly enough for people to get out of their way. If magma is thick and sticky, gases cannot escape easily. Pressure builds up until the gases escape violently and explode. A good example is the eruption of Washington’s Mount St. Helens. In this type of eruption, the magma blasts into the air and breaks apart into pieces called tephra. Tephra can range in size from tiny particles of ash to house-size boulders.

Explosive volcanic eruptions can be dangerous and deadly. They can blast out clouds of hot tephra from the side or top of a volcano. These fiery clouds race down mountainsides destroying almost everything in their path. Ash erupted into the sky falls back to Earth like powdery snow. If thick enough, blankets of ash can suffocate plants, animals, and humans. When hot volcanic materials mix with water from streams or melted snow and ice, mudflows form. Mudflows (lahars) have buried entire communities located near erupting volcanoes.

Active, Dormant, & Extinct

Volcanologists describe volcanoes as being active, dormant, or extinct based on how recently they erupted and whether they are likely to do so again.

• Active: A volcano is considered potentially active if it has erupted during the last 10,000 years. Some volcanoes may have dormant periods between eruptions greater than 10,000 years, but 10,000 years is a convenient cut-off date for activity and is used by convention. An active volcano is currently erupting, or is one that has erupted in historic time. Even though Mount Rainier hasn’t had a significant eruption for a thousand years, it is considered to be an active volcano.

• Dormant: A volcano that is not erupting now, but is considered likely to erupt in the future. There is no precise distinction between active and dormant volcanoes. Sometimes dormant volcanoes are described as being potentially active. Mount Rainier and the El Malpais National Monument volcanic field are considered dormant.

• Extinct: An extinct volcano is one that is not expected to erupt again in the future. Sometimes the determination of whether a volcano is extinct is based on the amount of time since its last eruption. Alternatively, some types of volcanoes such as cinder cones typically only erupt once. For example, Capulin Volcano, a cinder cones, is extinct.

Volcanoes are classified by the eruption type and by the volcanic cone shape. There are three basic cone shapes and six eruption types.

 The three cone shapes are cinder cones, shield cones, and composite cones or stratovolcanoes.

The six eruption types are in order from least explosive to the most explosive; Icelandic, Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Pelean, and Plinian.

• Icelandic, flood, or fissure eruptions are all terms for volcanic eruptions that flood surface of the Earth with massive amounts of very hot, very thin, runny lava. The lava comes out of the ground through long cracks in the surface called fissures. Some of these fissures can be up to 15 miles long. 

The type of cone produced from icelandic eruptions is a shield cone. Shield cones are very low and very broad shaped volcanoes. These volcanoes erupt many times over the same area forming huge, and thick lava plateaus.

• Hawaiian eruptions are similar to Icelandic eruptions because both eruption types have many fissures bringing the lava to the surface. Both types of eruptions are known for their beautiful fire fountains like the one shown above. The lava that flows from both types of eruptions is very hot, thin, and runny which allows for fast flowing lava flows. 

The main difference lies in the fact that most Hawaiian eruptions have the greatest quantity of lava pouring out of the main vent at the volcano's summit, not along side fissures. These summit eruptions build the cone steeper and higher. The volcano above was formed from Hawaiian eruptions.

• Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions are more explosive than Icelandic and Hawaiian eruptions. Strombolian eruptions are named for the volcanic island off of the coast of Italy. Stromboli has erupted over many centuries almost constantly. Stromboli has been named the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean" because it erupts every 20 minutes or so. Strombolian eruptions are short lived explosive eruptions that shoot very thick and pasty lava into the air along with bursts of steam and gas. 

Strombolian eruptions usually produce little or no lava. Because of this the cones that are produced by this type of eruption is a very steep sided cone called a cinder cone.

• Vulcanian eruptions are more violent and explosive than strombolian eruptions. Vulcanian eruptions are named after the island of Vulcano off the coast of Italy. This is the same island that gave us the name "Volcano". Vulcanian eruptions contain high dark clouds of steam, ash, and gas. The ash plume builds a cauliflower shaped head and a thinner more treetrunk-like base. When the volcano quits erupting ash and gases it then ejects thick pasty lava. Vulcanian eruptions usually build a steep sided cone that is more symetrical than a cinder cone. This more symetrical cone is called a strovolcano. Vulcanian eruptions will send an ash plume to a height of 2 -9 miles. 

• Pelean and Plinian eruptions are the most dangerous and explosive of the eruption types. Pelean eruptions are named for the catastophic eruption on the island of Martinique in the Carribean Sea in 1902. The eruption and the pyroclastic flow that followed killed 29,000 people almost instantly. "Glowing clouds" of gas and ash flew down the mountain at over 70 miles per hour. The cloud was so full of ash that it was heavier than air and hugged the ground as it approached the coast. The temperatures were probably around 700 degress F. which would annihalate everything in its path.

• A Plinian eruption is the most explosive of the eruption types. Mt. St. Helens eruption was a plinian eruption. Plinian eruptions are characterized by a very high ash cloud that rise upwards to 50,000 feet (almost 10 miles) high. Very deadly pyroclastic flows are also part of plinian eruptions.