(1) :a means of restraining :a restraining force or influence 

(2) :a device that restrictsmovement
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/restraint

FEMININITY: the quality or nature of the female sex .
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/femininity
MASCULINITY: Qualities or attributes regarded as characteristic of men.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/masculinity
COLLECTIVISM: a political or economic theory advocating collective control especially over production and distribution; also :a system marked by such control.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collectivism
INDIVIDUALISM: a doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be ethically paramount; also :conduct guided by such a doctrine.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/individualism
INDULGENCE: remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation).
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS: Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-cultural-dimension
GEERT HOFSTEDE:
(3 October 1928, Haarlem) is an influential social psychologist, professor of anthropology, mechanical engineer and Dutch writer in the field of relations between national cultures and between cultures within organizations. He is the author of many books, including Culture's Consequences and Software of the Mind, co-written with his son Gert Jan Hofstede.
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede
POWER DISTANCE: Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".[1] It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE:
Uncertainty avoidance is one of five key qualities or dimensions measured by the researchers who developed the Hofstede model of cultural dimensions to quantify cultural differences across international lines and better understand why some ideas and business practices work better in some countries than in others.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_avoidance
SHORT TERM ORIENTATION:
is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html
LONG TERM ORIENTATION:
is when you are focused on the future. You are willing to delay short-term material or social success or even short-term emotional gratification in order to prepare for the future. If you have this cultural perspective, you value persistence, perseverance, saving and being able to adapt.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html

3:women, womankind

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/femininity
INDIVIDUALISM
a (1) :a doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be ethically paramount; also :conduct guided by such a doctrine (2) :the conception that all values, rights, and duties originate in individuals
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/individualism
INDULGENCE
1:remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation)

2:the act of indulging :the state of being indulgent
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence
long term orientation
Long-Term Orientation is the fifth dimension of Hofstede which was added after the original four to try to distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and West. From the original IBM studies, this difference was something that could not be deduced. Therefore, Hofstede created a Chinese value survey which was distributed across 23 countries. From these results, and with an understanding of the influence of the teaching of Confucius on the East, long term vs. short term orientation became the fifth cultural dimension.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/long-term-orientation/
MASCULINITY
the set of qualities considered appropriate for or characteristic of men
https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/masculinity
SHORT TERN ORIENTATION
is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html
RESTRAINT
a :to prevent from doing, exhibiting, or expressing something 

b :to limit, restrict, or keep under control 

POWER DISTANCE
Power distance is a term that describes how people belonging to a specific culture view power relationships - superior/subordinate relationships - between people, including the degree that people not in power accept that power is spread unequally.

http://study.com/academy/lesson/hofstedes-power-distance-definition-examples-quiz.html
COLLECTIVISM
a political or economic theory advocating collective control especially over production and distribution; also :a system marked by such control
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collectivism

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/uncertainty-avoidance-index/

The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries  from each other. 

Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors.

Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created.

Restraint is calm, controlled, and unemotional behaviour.

Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.

indulgence: an occasion when you allow someone or yourself to have something enjoyable, especially more than is good for you

Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally"

Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism.

Long-Term Orientation is the fifth dimension of Hofstede which was added after the original four to try to distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and West.

Short-term orientation is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations.

uncertainty avoidance is a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty.

https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede

CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
Geert Hofstede has defined “culture” as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others”. In 1980 he published his book “Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values”. As the title suggests, this book was entirely devoted to the study of culture at the national level, in which values played a major role. The book’s main innovation was its use of the concept (paradigm) of dimensions of culture: basic problems to which different national societies have over time developed different answers.
https://geert-hofstede.com/cultural-dimensions.html

FEMININITY
is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity

MASCULINITY
is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity

INDULGENCE
an occasion when you allow someone or yourself to have something enjoyable, especially more than is good for you

INDIVIDUALISM
 is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism

COLLECTIVISM
is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism

RESTRAINT
is calm, controlled, and unemotional behaviour.
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/restraint

POWER DISTANCE
is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally"
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
is a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_avoidance

LONG TERM ORIENTATION
 is when you are focused on the future. You are willing to delay short-term material or social success or even short-term emotional gratification in order to prepare for the future. If you have this cultural perspective, you value persistence, perseverance, saving and being able to adapt.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html

SHORT TERM ORIENTATION
is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html

Erika leon polo 

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies on national values, introducing the dimension concept. His most popular book, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, has been translated into 20 different languages.
https://geert-hofstede.com

Geert Hofstede has defined “culture” as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others”. In 1980 he published his book “Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values”. As the title suggests, this book was entirely devoted to the study of culture at the national level, in which values played a major role. The book’s main innovation was its use of the concept (paradigm) of dimensions of culture: basic problems to which different national societies have over time developed different answers.

https://geert-hofstede.com/cultural-dimensions.html

FEMININITY

Femininity is a quality of acting in a typically womanly, girlish, or feminine way. Different cultures have different ideas of what femininity looks like.
If you're a gentle, sweet-natured person, your grandmother may praise your femininity. You might argue, however, that your brother is even sweeter and more soft-spoken than you are. Society has a particular idea and definition of exactly what femininity is, but this varies widely for individual women. Femininity comes from the adjective feminine, "relating to women," from the Latin femina, "woman."
https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/femininity


MASCULINITY
Masculinity(also called boyhood, manliness, or manhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created.[1][2][3] It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex.[4][5] Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.[6][7]
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity
INDULGENCE
remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation).
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence


INDIVIDUALISM

 is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.^[1][2] Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independenceand self-reliance^[3] and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group,^[3] while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government.^[3] Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, tribalism, and more corporate social forms.^[4][5]
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism
COLLECTIVISM
Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism. Collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic, and educational systems.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism

LONG TERM ORIENTATION
Long-Term Orientation is the fifth dimension of Hofstede which was added after the original four to try to distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and West. From the original IBM studies, this difference was something that could not be deduced. Therefore, Hofstede created a Chinese value survey which was distributed across 23 countries. From these results, and with an understanding of the influence of the teaching of Confucius on the East, long term vs. short term orientation became the fifth cultural dimension.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/long-term-orientation/

Short-term orientation

is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.

http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html
POWER DISTANCE
Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".^[1] It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management. People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification".In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE

uncertainty avoidance is a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. Uncertainty avoidance is one of five key qualities or dimensions measured by the researchers who developed the Hofstede model of cultural dimensions to quantify cultural differences across international lines and better understand why some ideas and business practices work better in some countries than in others. According to the theory's framework, the dimensions are only applicable to a society as a whole, not for each individual in the society.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_avoidance
RESTRAINT
A measure or condition that keeps someone or something under control.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/restraint
GARCIA SUAREZ BLANCA RUBY

Geert Hofstede developed a theory that explains this phenomenon based on studies that he conducted in
the 1980s involving more than 50 national cultures. His theory is called Theory of
Cultural Dimensions and provides a framework for examining how cultural values ​​affect
behavior and gives clues as to why people of a culture can act in a certain way.

https://s3.amazonaws.com/woca-s3/telligent.evolution.components.attachments/13/1637/00/00/00/00/65/14/Hofstede%27s+Cultural+Dimensions...for+friends+of+AFS+2012+-+ESP.pdf?
AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJC2S635RRRB3EOPQ&Expires=1506236035&Signature=697YxQBpsA5hkivSOhAIgnLqNzo%3d
Femininity 

Femininity is understood as a set of attributes associated with the traditional role of the female category. Some examples of these attributes are understanding, gentleness and softness, showing affection, education and caring for offspring, etc. So throughout the history of (at least) the western countries, and even today, women have suffered great social pressure to respond in front of others with behaviors associated with those attributes.
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminidad 
Masculinity 
is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created.[1][2][3] It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex.[4][5] Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculity
INDULGENCE
remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation)

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence
INDIVIDUALIMS
s the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.^[1][2]Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance^[3] and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group,^[3] while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government.^[3] Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, tribalism, and more corporate social forms.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism
POWER DISTANCE
is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".^[1] It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management. People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification".^[1] In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance
COLLECTIVISM
is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism. Collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic, and educational systems.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism
UNNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
is a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. Uncertainty avoidance is one of five key qualities or dimensions measured by the researchers who developed the Hofstede model of cultural dimensions to quantify cultural differences across international lines and better understand why some ideas and business practices work better in some countries than in others. According to the theory's framework, the dimensions are only applicable to a society as a whole, not for each individual in the society.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_avoidance
SHORT TERM ORIENTATION
Short term orientation fosters virtues of past and present, focuses on respect for tradition and filling social obligations
https://prezi.com/xyoq-wcsq7eu/short-term-vs-long-term-orientation/
LONG TERM ORIENTATION
long term orientation fosters virtues that are oriented towards future rewards, perseverance and thrift
https://prezi.com/xyoq-wcsq7eu/short-term-vs-long-term-orientation/
RETRAINT
(control, reserve)
http://www.wordreference.com/es/translation.asp?tranword=restraint

His most notable work has been in developing cultural dimensions theory. Here he describes national cultures along six dimensions: Power Distance, Individualism, Uncertainty avoidance, Masculinity, Long Term Orientation, and Indulgence vs. restraint. He is known for his books Culture's Consequences and Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, co-authored with his son Gert Jan Hofstede.^[1][2] The latter book deals with organizational culture, which is a different structure from national culture, but also has measurable dimensions, and the same research methodology is used for both.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.^[1]

Hofstede developed his original model as a result of using factor analysis to examine the results of a world-wide survey of employee values by IBM between 1967 and 1973. It has been refined since. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task orientation versus person-orientation). Independent research in Hong Kong led Hofstede to add a fifth dimension, long-term orientation, to cover aspects of values not discussed in the original paradigm. In 2010, Hofstede added a sixth dimension, indulgence versus self-restraint.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory

Femininity (also called girlishness, womanliness or womanhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors.^[2][3][4] This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex,^[5][6] as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.^[7][8] Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity

Masculinity (also called boyhood, manliness, or manhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created.^[1][2][3] It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex.^[4][5] Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity

remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation)
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence

a (1) :a doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be ethically paramount; also :conduct guided by such a doctrine 

(2) :the conception that all values, rights, and duties originate in individuals
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/individualism

Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism. Collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic, and educational systems.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism

a :an act of restraining :the state of being restrained

b (1) :a means of restraining :a restraining force or influence 

(2) :a device that restrictsmovement 

Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".^[1] It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management. People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification".^[1] In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.^{[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance}

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/uncertainty-avoidance-index/
Long-term orientation
is when you are focused on the future. You are willing to delay short-term material or social success or even short-term emotional gratification in order to prepare for the future. If you have this cultural perspective, you value persistence, perseverance, saving and being able to adapt.
Short-term orientation
is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html

Gerard Hendrik Hofstede (3 October 1928, Haarlem) is an influential social psychologist, professor of anthropology, mechanical engineer and Dutch writer in the field of relations between national cultures and between cultures within organizations. He is the author of many books, including Culture's Consequences and Software of the Mind,
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede

 Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.
  It has inspired a number of other major cross-cultural studies of values, as well as research on other aspects of culture, such as social beliefs
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory
 
 
 

 Is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with children and men. Masculinity is socially defined and biologically created.
 Traits traditionally cited as masculine include courage, independence and assertiveness and are influenced by social and cultural factors.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity
 
 

Is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with children and men. Masculinity is socially defined and biologically created.

Traits traditionally cited as masculine include courage, independence and assertiveness and are influenced by social and cultural factors.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity

 

a :an act of restraining :the state of being restrained

b (1) :a means of restraining :a restraining force or influence 

(2) :a device that restricts movement a restraint for children riding in cars
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/restraint

Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification".  In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance

Remission or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation)
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence

Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group, while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government.Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, tribalism, and more corporate social forms.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism

Short-term orientation is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.

You should note that the concepts of long-term orientation and short-term orientation address the different ways cultures view time and the importance of the past, present and the future.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html 

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity;  It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/uncertainty-avoidance-index/

 

Long-Term Orientation is the fifth dimension of Hofstede which was added after the original four to try to distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and West. From the original IBM studies, this difference was something that could not be deduced.  Hofstede created a Chinese value survey which was distributed across 23 countries. From these results, and with an understanding of the influence of the teaching of Confucius on the East, long term vs. short term orientation became the fifth cultural dimension.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/long-term-orientation/

Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic, and educational systems.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism

HILDA JOSELYN CELAGUACHAY PAGUAY

The earliest modern, influential expression of collectivist ideas in the West is in Jean-Jacques Rousseau’sDu contrat social, of 1762 (see social contract), in which it is argued that the individual finds his true being and freedom only in submission to the “general will” of the community. In the early 19th century the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel argued that the individual realizes his true being and freedom only in unqualified submission to the laws and institutions of the nation-state, which to Hegel was the highest embodiment of social morality. Karl Marx later provided the most succinct statement of the collectivist view of the primacy of social interaction in the preface to his Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy: “It is not men’s consciousness,” he wrote, “which determines their being, but their social being which determines their consciousness.”

Collectivism has found varying degrees of expression in the 20th century in such movements as socialism, communism, and fascism. The least collectivist of these is social democracy, which seeks to reduce the inequities of unrestrained capitalism by government regulation, redistribution of income, and varying degrees of planning and public ownership. In communist systems collectivism is carried to its furthest extreme, with a minimum of private ownership and a maximum of planned economy.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/collectivism

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’.

For example, in Germany there is a reasonable high uncertainty avoidance (65) compared to countries as Singapore (8) and neighbouring country Denmark (23). Germans are not to keen on uncertainty, by planning everything carefully they try to avoid the uncertainty. In Germany there is a society that relies on rules, laws and regulations. Germany wants to reduce its risks to the minimum and proceed with changes step by step.

The United States scores a 46 compared to the 65 of the German culture. Uncertainty avoidance in the US is relatively low, which can clearly be viewed through the national cultures.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/uncertainty-avoidance-index/

Long-Term Orientation is the fifth dimension of Hofstede which was added after the original four to try to distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and West. From the original IBM studies, this difference was something that could not be deduced. Therefore, Hofstede created a Chinese value survey which was distributed across 23 countries. From these results, and with an understanding of the influence of the teaching of Confucius on the East, long term vs. short term orientation became the fifth cultural dimension.

Below are some characteristics of the two opposing sides of this dimension:

Long term orientation
-persistence
-ordering relationships by status and observing this order
-thrift
-having a sense of shame

Short term orientation
-personal steadiness and stability
-protecting your ‘face’
-respect or tradition
-reciprocation of greetings, favors, and gifts
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/long-term-orientation/

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others”. The six dimensions of national culture are based on extensive research done by Professor Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams. If you want to make academic research within the field of culture, we advise you familiarize yourself with Hofstede’s books.

Dimensions of national culture

The model of national culture consists of six dimensions. The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals) from each other. The country scores on the dimensions are relative, as we are all human and simultaneously we are all unique. In other words, culture can be only used meaningfully by comparison. The model consists of the following dimensions (click on the name of the dimension to read more):

About the research

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He analysed a large database of employee value scores collected within IBM between 1967 and 1973. The data covered more than 70 countries, from which Hofstede first used the 40 countries with the largest groups of respondents and afterwards extended the analysis to 50 countries and 3 regions. Subsequent studies validating the earlier results include such respondent groups as commercial airline pilots and students in 23 countries, civil service managers in 14 counties, 'up-market' consumers in 15 countries and 'elites' in 19 countries.

In the 2010 edition of the book Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, scores on the dimensions are listed for 76 countries, partly based on replications and extensions of the IBM study on different international populations and by different scholars.
https://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html

Geert Hofstede’s scientific innovation, the dimension conceptGeert Hofstede has defined “culture” as “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others”. In 1980 he published his book “Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values”. As the title suggests, this book was entirely devoted to the study of culture at the national level, in which values played a major role. The book’s main innovation was its use of the concept (paradigm) of dimensions of culture: basic problems to which different national societies have over time developed different answers.

National Culture

Using research data from a multinational company (IBM) with subsidiaries in more than 60 countries, he identified four largely independent dimensions: Power Distance (large versus small), Uncertainty Avoidance (strong versus weak), Individualism versus Collectivism and Masculinity versus Femininity. The relative positions of 40 countries on these four dimensions were expressed in a score on a 0-100 point scale. Replications by Hofstede and other researchers have extended the number of countries covered to 76.

Organisational Culture

Next to and separately from his studies in national culture, Geert Hofstede with a team of collaborators has in the 1980s conducted an in-depth study of organizational cultures in ten Danish and ten Dutch organizations. This study is described in a separate chapter in his books since 1991. It has also led to the identification of six dimensions, which however should not be confused with the six national culture dimensions and are not necessarily relevant in all countries and all organizations. They are not based on values but on strategic practices, which unlike national values can to some extent be monitored by the organization’s management, with the support of skillful consultants and coaches. This kind of consulting and coaching is a second activity of the hofstede centre.

The model on organisational culture was further operationalized by Bob Waisfisz during the 90´s and 2000´s as the Hofstede Multi-focus Model.
https://geert-hofstede.com/cultural-dimensions.html

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Feminine" redirects here. For other uses, see Feminine (disambiguation).

Fragment of a stone plaque from the temple of Inanna at Nippur showing a Sumerian goddess, possibly Inanna (circa 2500 BC).^[1] Inanna is symbolic of femininity.

Femininity (also called girlishness, womanliness or womanhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors.^[2][3][4] This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex,^[5][6] as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.^[7][8] Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.^[9]

Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity,^[10][11][12] though traits associated with femininity vary depending on location and context, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors.^[13] In some non-English speaking cultures, certain concepts or inanimate objects are considered feminine or masculine (the counterpart to feminine).^[14]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In Greek mythology, Heracles is synonymous with Apollonianmasculinity.

Part of a series on
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Masculinity (also called boyhood, manliness, or manhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created.^[1][2][3] It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex.^[4][5] Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.^[6][7]

Traits traditionally cited as masculine include courage, independence and assertiveness.^[8][9][10] These traits vary by location and context, and are influenced by social and cultural factors.^[11] An overemphasis on masculinity and power, often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility, is known as machismo.^{[12]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity}

A 

Catholic bishop granting plenary indulgences for the public during times of calamity. Note the almsgiving in the background. Wall Fresco by Italian Artist Lorenzo Lotto, Suardi, Italy, circa 1524.In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence is "a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins".^[1]It may reduce the temporal punishment after death, in the state or process of purification called Purgatory.The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes an indulgence as "a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly disposed gains under certain prescribed conditions through the action of the Church which, as the minister of redemption, dispenses and applies with authority the treasury of the satisfactions of Christ and the saints".^[2]The recipient of an indulgence must perform an action to receive it. This is most often the saying (once, or many times) of a specified prayer, but may also include the visiting of a particular place, or the performance of specific good works.

Sacred inscription on the 

Archbasilica of St. John Lateran in Rome: Indulgentia plenaria perpetua quotidiana toties quoties pro vivis et defunctis (English trans: "Perpetual everyday plenary indulgence on every occasion for the living and the dead")Indulgences were introduced to allow for the remission of the severe penances of the early Church and granted at the intercession of Christians awaiting martyrdom or at least imprisoned for the faith.^[3] They draw on the treasury of merit accumulated by Christ'ssuperabundantly meritorious sacrifice on the cross and the virtues and penances of the saints.^[4] They are granted for specific good works and prayers^[4] in proportion to the devotion with which those good works are performed or prayers recited.^[5]By the late Middle Ages, the abuse of indulgences, mainly through commercialization, had become a serious problem which the Church recognized but was unable to restrain effectively. Indulgences were from the beginning of the Protestant Reformation a target of attacks by Martin Luther and all other Protestant theologians. Eventually the Catholic Counter-Reformation curbed the excesses, but indulgences continue to play a role in modern Catholic religious life. Reforms in the 20th century largely abolished the quantification of indulgences, which had been expressed in terms of days or years. These days or years were meant to represent the equivalent of time spent in penance, although it was widely taken to mean time spent in Purgatory. The reforms also greatly reduced the number of indulgences granted for visiting particular churches and other locations.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indulgence
restraint  noun (plural: restraints)

moderación f Doctors recommend drinking alcohol with restraint. Los médicos recomiendan beber alcohol con moderación.

restricción f  (plural: restricciones f)The government established restraints on fuel prices. El Gobierno impuso restricciones en los precios de los carburantes.

control m  (plural: controles m)I show restraint by not eating chocolate when I am dieting. Demuestro control no comiendo chocolate cuando estoy a dieta.He showed restraint and avoided eating too much. Él mostró control y evitó comer demasiado.

reserva f  (plural: reservas f)I always speak to my best friend without restraints. A mi mejor amiga siempre le hablo sin reservas.

reclusión f The hospital staff reduced the use of restraint to serious cases. El personal del hospital redujo el uso de la reclusión a casos graves.

 Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".^[1] It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management. People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification".^[1] In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.^{[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance}
Individualism

Introduction | Political Individualism
Introduction | Back to TopIndividualism is a moral, political or social outlook that stresses human independence and the importance of individual self-reliance and liberty. It opposes most external interference with an individual's choices, whether by society, the state or any other group or institution (collectivism or statism), and it also opposed to the view that tradition, religion or any other form of external moral standard should be used to limit an individual's choice of actions.Ethical Individualism, then, is the position that individual conscience or reason is the only moral rule, and there is no objective authority or standard which it is bound to take into account. It can be applied to the morality of the Scottish School of Common Sense of the late 18th Century, the autonomous morality of Immanuel Kant, and even ancient Greek Hedonism and Eudaimonism.Some Individualists are also Egoists (the ethical position that moral agents ought to do whatever is in their own self-interest), although they usually do not argue that selfishness is inherently good. Rather, they would argue that individuals are not duty-bound to any socially-imposed morality, and that individuals should be free to choose to be selfish or not.Existentialist ethics is also characterized by an emphasis on moral Individualism, especially given its focus on the subjective, personal lives of individual human beings. Existentialism holds that there is no basic and given “human nature” that is common to all people, and so each person must define individually what humanity means to them and what values or purpose will dominate in their lives.The term "individualism" was first used by French and British proto-Socialists, followers of Saint-Simon (1760 - 1825) and Robert Owen (1771 - 1858), initially as a pejorative term, and mainly in the sense of Political Individualism (see the section below). The 19th Century American Henry David Thoreau is often cited as an example of a committed Individualist. In popular usage, the connotations of "individualism" can be positive or negative, depending on who is using the term, and how.Political Individualism | Back to TopPolitical Individualism is the theory that the state should take a merely defensive role by protecting the liberty of each individual to act as he or she wishes, just as long he or she does not infringe on the same liberty of another (essentially the laissez-faire position at the heart of classical Liberalism, Libertarianism and modern Capitalism). It sees itself in fundamental opposition to concepts such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "social contract", which maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own will to the "general will", and in opposition to any collectivist ideology such as Socialism or Communism.Some Political Individualists hold a view known as Methodological Individualism, that society (and government, for that matter) does not have any existence or meaning above or beyond a collection of individuals, and thus cannot be properly said to carry out actions or possess intentionality. Some even take a radicalist approach called Individualist Anarchism (see Anarchism), which holds that the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective body or public authority, refusing to accept even the decisions of democratic government.
http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_individualism.html

A Dutch academic who has (unusually) never worked or studied in America, Hofstede taught at INSEAD, near Paris, in the 1970s and spent much of the 1990s in Hong Kong. He also taught for long spells at Maastricht University and the University of Tilburg. Early in his career he worked for IBM, where he carried out the research on which his career and reputation subsequently rested. What has become known as the Hofstede Cultural Orientation Model is based on his study between 1967 and 1973 of IBM employees in 40 different countries.

http://www.economist.com/node/12669307

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.

Hofstede developed his original model as a result of using factor analysis to examine the results of a world-wide survey of employee values by IBM between 1967 and 1973. It has been refined since. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task orientation versus person-orientation). Independent research in Hong Kong led Hofstede to add a fifth dimension, long-term orientation, to cover aspects of values not discussed in the original paradigm. In 2010, Hofstede added a sixth dimension, indulgence versus self-restraint.

Hofstede's work established a major research tradition in cross-cultural psychology and has also been drawn upon by researchers and consultants in many fields relating to international business and communication. The theory has been widely used in several fields as a paradigm for research, particularly in cross-cultural psychology, international management, and cross-cultural communication. It continues to be a major resource in cross-cultural fields. It has inspired a number of other major cross-cultural studies of values, as well as research on other aspects of culture, such as social beliefs.

Femininity (also called girlishness, womanliness or womanhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors. This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity

Masculinity (also called boyhood, manliness, or manhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created. It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex. Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity

A measure or condition that keeps someone or something under control.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/restraint

remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation)

Power Distance is the “extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.” The United States has a lower power distance, where all people feel entitled to a certain amount of power. Saudi Arabia, on the other hand, has a higher power distance, where people recognize that some are given little, or no, power and others are in extremely high powered positions.
http://hopeinterculturalcomm.weebly.com/power-distance.html

a social theory advocating the liberty, rights, or independent action ofthe individual.
2.the principle or habit of or belief in independent thought or action.
3.the pursuit of individual rather than common or collective interests;egoism.

Short-term orientation is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.
You should note that the concepts of long-term orientation and short-term orientation address the different ways cultures view time and the importance of the past, present and the future. Cultures demonstrating a short-term orientation will be more concerned with the past and present and will focus their efforts and beliefs on matters related to the short-term, while cultures demonstrating a long-term time orientation will be more concerned with the future and focus their efforts on future-orientated goals.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html

Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism. Collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic, and educational systems.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/uncertainty-avoidance-index/

Through the publication of his scholarly book, Culture’s Consequences (1980, new edition 2001, Geert Hofstede (1928) became the founder of comparative intercultural research. His most popular book, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (1991, newest edition 2010, co-authored with Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov), has so far been translated into 20 languages.

Geert Hofstede’s articles have been published in social science and management journals around the world. He is recognised internationally for having developed the first empirical model of “dimensions“ of national culture, thus establishing a new paradigm for taking account of cultural elements in international economics, communication and cooperation. Later, he also developed a model for organisational cultures.

Through his varied and numerous academic and cultural activities in many different countries, Hofstede can be regarded as one of the leading representatives of intercultural research and studies. The findings of his research and his theoretical ideas are used worldwide in both psychology and management studies.

BOOKS BY GEERT HOFSTEDE

 
NATIONAL CULTURE

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others”.

The six dimensions of national culture are based on extensive research done by Professor Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams.

The application of this research is used worldwide in both academic and professional management settings.

The Hofstede model of national culture consists of six dimensions. The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals) from each other.

The country scores on the dimensions are relative, in that we are all human and simultaneously we are all unique. In other words, culture can only be used meaningfully by comparison. The model consists of the following dimensions:

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people.

People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low Power Distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.

The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.

Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular ingroup to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.”

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.

In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is sometimes also related to as “tough versus tender” cultures.   
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/models/national-culture/

COLLECTIVISM

 Collectivism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism. Collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic, and educational systems.

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.^[1]

Hofstede developed his original model as a result of using factor analysis to examine the results of a worldwide survey of employee values by IBM between 1967 and 1973. It has been refined since. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task orientation versus person-orientation). Independent research in Hong Kong led Hofstede to add a fifth dimension, long-term orientation, to cover aspects of values not discussed in the original paradigm. In 2010, Hofstede added a sixth dimension, indulgence versus self-restraint.

Hofstede's work established a major research tradition in cross-cultural psychology and has also been drawn upon by researchers and consultants in many fields relating to international business and communication. The theory has been widely used in several fields as a paradigm for research, particularly in cross-cultural psychology, international management, and cross-cultural communication. It continues to be a major resource in cross-cultural fields. It has inspired a number of other major cross-cultural studies of values, as well as research on other aspects of culture, such as social beliefs.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory

FEMININITY
Femininity (also called girlishness, womanliness or womanhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors.^[2][3][4] This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex,^[5][6] as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.^[7][8] Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity

MASCULINITY
Masculinity (also called boyhood, manliness, or manhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created.^[1][2][3] It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex.^[4][5] Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity

RESTRAINT
A measure or condition that keeps someone or something under control.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/restraint

INDULGENCE

POWER DISTANCE
Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".^[1] It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management. People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification".^[1] In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance


INDIVIDUALISM
ndividualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual.^[1][2] Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance^[3] and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group,^[3] while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government.^[3] Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, tribalism, and more corporate social forms.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism

INDULGENCE
1:remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation)

2:the act of indulging :the state of being indulgent
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence

LONG TERM ORIENTATION
Long-term orientation is when you are focused on the future. You are willing to delay short-term material or social success or even short-term emotional gratification in order to prepare for the future. If you have this cultural perspective, you value persistence, perseverance, saving and being able to adapt.
SHORT TERM ORIENTATION
Short-term orientation is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.

http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html

COLLECTIVISM
1:a political or economic theory advocating collective control especially over production and distribution; also :a system marked by such control

2:emphasis on collective rather than individual action or identity

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collectivism

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’.

For example, in Germany there is a reasonable high uncertainty avoidance (65) compared to countries as Singapore (8) and neighbouring country Denmark (23). Germans are not to keen on uncertainty, by planning everything carefully they try to avoid the uncertainty. In Germany there is a society that relies on rules, laws and regulations. Germany wants to reduce its risks to the minimum and proceed with changes step by step.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/uncertainty-avoidance-index/

Michael Jose Menoscal Miño

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others”.

The six dimensions of national culture are based on extensive research done by Professor Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams.

The application of this research is used worldwide in both academic and professional management settings.

DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE:

The Hofstede model of national culture consists of six dimensions. The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals) from each other.

The country scores on the dimensions are relative, in that we are all human and simultaneously we are all unique. In other words, culture can only be used meaningfully by comparison. The model consists of the following dimensions:

POWER DISTANCE INDEX (PDI)

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people.

People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low Power Distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.

INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM (IDV)

The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.

Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular ingroup to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.”

MASCULINITY VERSUS FEMININITY (MAS)

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.

In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is sometimes also related to as “tough versus tender” cultures.

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX (UAI)

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen?

Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour, and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles.

LONG TERM ORIENTATION VERSUS SHORT TERM NORMATIVE ORIENTATION (LTO)

Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and the future. Societies prioritize these two existential goals differently.

Societies who score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion.

Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

In the business context, this dimension is referred to as “(short term) normative versus (long term) pragmatic” (PRA). In the academic environment, the terminology Monumentalism versus Flexhumility is sometimes also used.

INDULGENCE VERSUS RESTRAINT (IND)

Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

ABOUT THE RESEARCH

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He analysed a large database of employee value scores collected within IBM between 1967 and 1973.

The data covered more than 70 countries, from which Hofstede first used the 40 countries with the largest groups of respondents and afterwards extended the analysis to 50 countries and 3 regions.

Subsequent studies validating the earlier results include such respondent groups as commercial airline pilots and students in 23 countries, civil service managers in 14 countries, ‘up-market’ consumers in 15 countries, and ‘elites’ in 19 countries.

In the 2010 edition of the book, “Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind”, scores on the dimensions are listed for 76 countries, partly based on replications and extensions of the IBM study on different international populations and by different scholars.
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/models/national-culture/

is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the group and its interests. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism. Collectivists focus on communal, societal, or national interests in various types of political, economic, and educational systems.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivism

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies on national values, introducing the dimension paradigm. His most popular book, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, has been translated into twenty languages.
https://geert-hofstede.com/

is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors. This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits. People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity

Hofstede's theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory

 is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created. It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex. Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity

A restraint applied to eliminate motion and restrain forces. Una restricción aplicada para eliminar el movimiento y refrenar las fuerzas. has exercised utmost restraintand has been taking. is resolved amicably between the two brotherly countries.
https://www.linguee.com/english-spanish/translation/restraint.html

remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/indulgence

 is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally". It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management. People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification". In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_distance

is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group,  while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government. Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism, authoritarianism, communitarianism, tribalism, and more corporate social forms.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualism

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth and we have it’.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/uncertainty-avoidance-index/

 is the fifth dimension of Hofstede which was added after the original four to try to distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and West. From the original IBM studies, this difference was something that could not be deduced. Therefore, Hofstede created a Chinese value survey which was distributed across 23 countries. From these results, and with an understanding of the influence of the teaching of Confucius on the East, long term vs. short term orientation became the fifth cultural dimension.
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/long-term-orientation/

is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.

You should note that the concepts of long-term orientation and short-term orientation address the different ways cultures view time and the importance of the past, present and the future. Cultures demonstrating a short-term orientation will be more concerned with the past and present and will focus their efforts and beliefs on matters related to the short-term, while cultures demonstrating a long-term time orientation will be more concerned with the future and focus their efforts on future-orientated goals.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/long-term-orientation-vs-short-term-orientation-hofstedes-definition-lesson-quiz.html

JOSEPH MARCELO TUTIVEN NAVIA

The nature of management skills is such that they are culturally specific: a management technique or philosophy that is appropriate in one national culture is not necessarily appropriate in another. The paper describes the scope of (workrelated) cultural differences as they were revealed by research in more than 50 countries around the world and discusses how these differences affect the validity of management techniques and philosophies in various countries within the functioning and meaning of planning. Management deals with a reality that is man-made. People build organizations according to their values, and societies are composed of institutions and organizations that reflect the dominant values within their culture. Organization theorists are slowly realising that their theories are much tess universal than they once assumed: theories also reflect the culture of the society in which they were developed. In this respect, the notion of a "Western" culture which justified universal "Western" modern management methods is also crumbling, tt has become more and mo~re clear that managing in different Western countries like Germany, France, Sweden or U.K. is not the same activity and that many usual generalizations are, in fact, not justified. By the same token, speaking of an "Asian" or "Middle-Eastern" type of management is not justified. There is a need among international managers and management theorists for a much deeper understanding of the range of culture-determined value systems that, in fact, exists among countries, and should be taken into account when transferring management ideas from one country to another. Managernent in its broadest sense consists in the co-ordination of the efforts of people and of the use of economical and technical resources in order to obtain desired ends. Management is a socio-technical activity in the sense that it implies dealing 'with people (the human or "socio" side) and with non-human resources (the technical side), as well as with the interaction between these two. Some kinds of management focus more on the human side -- say, leading a football club; others more on the technical side -- say, leading an air traffic control centre, but neither the technical nor the human component is ever completely absent. The technical side of management is less culture-dependent than the human side but because the two interact, no management activity can be culture-free. * The author is with the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, the Netherlands. This paper is a shorter version of the first part of a report MAN DEV/28, "Culture and Management Developmenr', written on behalf of the UNDP/ILO Interregional Project "Co-operation among Management Development Institutions" and published by the International Labour Office, Management Development Branch, Training Department, Geneva 1983. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, January 1984 81 

 "Culture" has been defined in many ways. My own preferred definition is that culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or society from those of another. Culture consists of the patterns of thinking that parents transfer to their children, teachers to their students, friends to their friends, leaders to their followers, and followers to their leaders. Culture is reflected in the meanings people attach to various aspects of life; their way of looking at the world and their role in it; in their values, that is, in what they consider as "good" and as "evil"; in their collective beliefs, what they consider as "true" and as "false"; in their artistic expressions, what they consider as "beautiful" and as "ugly". Culture, although basically resident in people's minds, becomes crystallized in the institutions and tangible products of a society, which reinforce the mental programmes in their turn. Management within a society is very much constrained by its cultural context, because it is impossible to coordinate the actions of people without a deep understanding of their values, beliefs, and expressions. Management is a symbolic activity: that is, managers influenced other persons through wielding symbols that have meaning for these persons and motivate them towards the desired actions. An example of such a symbol is a memorandum written by the manager to announce a change in procedure. Its effect depends on a complex set of pre-programmed interpretations by the receivers: whether they can read, whether they understand the language used, whether they respect the legitimacy of this decision by this manager, whether they consider the style of the memo appropriate to their status, whether they are accustomed to react on written messages, whether they consider themselves as competent to take the requested steps, etc. Taking into account the cultural side of management presupposes an understanding of the way people's minds can be programmed differently by their different life experiences. Patterns and models of behaviour between subordinates and superiors, among colleagues, and towards clients in the work situation have been set outside the work situation: between children and parents in the family (starting right at birth), among siblings and friends, between students and teachers, among citizens and authorities. The assumption of a collective programming of people's minds does not mean that everybody in a society is programmed in exactly the same way (there are wide differences among individuals and among subgroups of individuals) but the collective programming which I call culture should be seen as a collective component shared in the minds of otherwise different individuals and absent in the minds of individuals belonging to a different society. Planning is a part of management which may or may not be attached to a specialist function. What was stated above for management in general, also applies to planning in particular. Planning is also a symbolic activity, which may or may not have an impact on what happens afterwards. Even if it has not, it will in some culture still be functional because it allows management to feet secure.

 The cultural systems of nations and of their subdivisions are very complex and cannot be described in simple terms. It takesyears to understand a single cultural system if one is not born to it. Even the cultural system in which we are born cannot said to be understood by us in a way which we can explain to others because we participate in it unconsciously. The author of this study has been involved for more than fifteen years in a large research project across many.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01733682?LI=true

Gerard Hendrik Hofstede is an influential social psychologist, professor of anthropology, mechanical engineer and Dutch writer in the field of relations between national cultures and between cultures within organizations.

Hofstede_foto

He is the author of many books, including Culture's Consequences (Consequences of Culture) and Software of the Mind, co-written with his son Gert Jan Hofstede.

Hofstede's work has shown that there are cultural groupings at regional and national level that affect the behavior of societies and organizations, and that are very persistent over time.

We can not forget his important contribution to improve our understanding of other cultures in the work environment. We live in a global village with thousands of different cultures, intercultural communication becomes more and more meaningful, the biggest challenge of the globalized world is to communicate effectively with all those cultures with which it is related.

Hofstede developed the so-called 5-Dimensional Model to identify the cultural patterns of each group. It is a model of great help in present intercultural communication.

 

Hofstede

 

The 5 dimensions shown in the graphic above are the following:

Distance to power
Individualism - Collectivism
Masculinity - Femininity
Evasion of uncertainty
Long-term orientation
Dimension Description
Distance
to power The degree to which 'less powerful' members of a society expect the existence of differences in power levels. A higher score suggests that there are expectations that some individuals will have much more power than others. Countries with high distance in power are typically more violent. A low score reflects the perspective that people should have equal rights. The Latin American and Arab nations are cataloged as the highest in this category; Scandinavian and Germanic in the lowest.
Individualism vs. collectivism Individualism is contrasted with collectivism, and refers to the degree to which people expect to fend for themselves or, alternatively, act primarily as a member of a group or organization. The United States is the most individualistic society.
Masculinity vs. femininity The masculine side of this dimension represents the preference in society for achievements, heroism, assertiveness and material reward for success. Society in general is more competitive. Its opposite, femininity, refers to a preference for cooperation, modesty, concern for the weak and quality of life. The society is general is more oriented to reach consensus.
Aversion to uncertainty Reflects the degree to which a company accepts uncertainty and risks. In simple terms, the cultures with the highest scores on this scale avoid taking risks. The Mediterranean cultures, Latin America and Japan are the highest in this category.
Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation Refers to the importance given in a culture to long-term life planning in contrast to immediate concerns.
Source Table: Wikipedia

For those who are curious to know how different countries score in different dimensions, I leave this interesting video that explains it in detail and graphically, with color score maps: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v = U-XdlbgFxZo

Hofstede_mapa

Hofstede insists that cultural dimensions are no more than a framework to help evaluate a specific culture and, in this way, better guide decisions.

There are other factors that must be taken into account, such as personality. The proposed dimensions do not allow to predict the individual behaviors, nor do they take into account the personality of each one.

The man who put corporate culture on the map—almost literally—Geert Hofstede (born 1928) defined culture along five different dimensions. Each of these he measured for a large number of countries, and then made cross-country comparisons. In the age of globalisation, these have been used extensively by managers trying to understand the differences between workforces in different environments.

A Dutch academic who has (unusually) never worked or studied in America, Hofstede taught at INSEAD, near Paris, in the 1970s and spent much of the 1990s in Hong Kong. He also taught for long spells at Maastricht University and the University of Tilburg. Early in his career he worked for IBM, where he carried out the research on which his career and reputation subsequently rested. What has become known as the Hofstede Cultural Orientation Model is based on his study between 1967 and 1973 of IBM employees in 40 different countries.

               http://www.economist.com/node/12669307

 

·        CULTURAL DIMENSIONS

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the valuesof its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis. 

Hofstede developed his original model as a result of using factor analysis to examine the results of a worldwide survey of employee values by IBM between 1967 and 1973. It has been refined since. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task orientation versus person-orientation). Independent research in Hong Kong led Hofstede to add a fifth dimension, long-term orientation, to cover aspects of values not discussed in the original paradigm. In 2010, Hofstede added a sixth dimension, indulgence versus self-restraint.

Hofstede's work established a major research tradition in cross-cultural psychology and has also been drawn upon by researchers and consultants in many fields relating to international business and communication. The theory has been widely used in several fields as a paradigm for research, particularly in cross-cultural psychology, international management, and cross-cultural communication. It continues to be a major resource in cross-cultural fields. It has inspired a number of other major cross-cultural studies of values, as well as research on other aspects of culture, such as social beliefs.

 

·        FEMININITY

Femininity (also called girlishness, womanliness or womanhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Femininity is socially constructed, but made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors,This makes it distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits.

Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary depending on location and context, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors In some non-English speaking cultures, certain concepts or inanimate objects are considered feminine or masculine (the counterpart to feminine).

 

·        MASCULINITY

Masculinity (also called boyhood, manliness, or manhood) is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is both socially-defined and biologically-created It is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex. Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior.Traits traditionally cited as masculine include courage, independence and assertiveness. These traits vary by location and context, and are influenced by social and cultural factors. An overemphasis on masculinity and power, often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility, is known as machismo.

 

·        INDULGENCE

remission of part or all of the temporal and especially purgatorial punishment that according to Roman Catholicism is due for sins whose eternal punishment has been remitted and whose guilt has been pardoned (as through the sacrament of reconciliation).

 

·        INDIVIDUALISM

Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group, while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government.

Individualism makes the individual its focus and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation." Classical liberalism, existentialism, and anarchism are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis. Individualism thus involves "the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization". It has also been used as a term denoting "The quality of being an individual; individuality" related to possessing "An individual characteristic; a quirk." Individualism is thus also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors as so also with humanist philosophical positions and ethics. 

 

·        COLLECTIVISM

Collectivism is a political theory associated with communism. More broadly, it is the idea that people should prioritize the good of society over the welfare of the individual. Collectivism — so closely related to the word collection — has to do with political theories that put the group before the individual. In a collectivist system, power should be in the hands of the people as a whole, not in the hands of a few powerful folks. Collectivism is the opposite of individualism. Ideally, in a collectivist society, decisions benefit all the people. This is a difficult idea to put into practice, as seen in the attempted collectivist society of Soviet communism.

 

·        RESTRAINT

Restraint is the act of holding something back. For example, if you exercise restraint over your emotions, you won't burst out into tears in public. As you may have guessed from its similar spelling, the word restraint comes from the verb restrain, which in turn comes from the Latin word restringere, meaning "draw back tightly, confine, check." When talking about an object, a restraint is a device used to maintain control of something. For example, if your leg is operated on, the doctors will use a restraint to hold it still.

·        POWER DISTANCE

Power distance is the extent to which the lower ranking individuals of a society "accept and expect that power is distributed unequally".^[1] It is primarily used in psychological and sociological studies on societal management of inequalities between individuals, and individual's perceptions of that management. People in societies with a high power distance are more likely to conform to a hierarchy where "everybody has a place and which needs no further justification". In societies with a low power distance, individuals tend to try to distribute power equally. In such societies, inequalities of power among people would require additional justification.

 

·        UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE

In cross-cultural psychology, uncertainty avoidance is a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. Uncertainty avoidance is one of five key qualities or dimensions measured by the researchers who developed the Hofstede model of cultural dimensions to quantify cultural differences across international lines and better understand why some ideas and business practices work better in some countries than in others. According to the theory's framework, the dimensions are only applicable to a society as a whole, not for each individual in the society. 

The uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which a typical person in a society feels uncomfortable with a sense of uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? Countries exhibiting strong uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles. People in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance tend to be more rational. They try to minimize the occurrence of unknown and unusual circumstances and to proceed with careful changes step by step by planning and by implementing rules, laws and regulations. In contrast, low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible. People in these cultures tend to be more pragmatic and more tolerant of change.

 

·        LONG-TERM ORIENTATION

·        SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION

Long-term orientation is when you are focused on the future. You are willing to delay short-term material or social success or even short-term emotional gratification in order to prepare for the future. If you have this cultural perspective, you value persistence, perseverance, saving and being able to adapt.

Short-term orientation is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate gratification than long-term fulfillment.You should note that the concepts of long-term orientation and short-term orientation address the different ways cultures view time and the importance of the past, present and the future. Cultures demonstrating a short-term orientation will be more concerned with the past and present and will focus their efforts and beliefs on matters related to the short-term, while cultures demonstrating a long-term time orientation will be more concerned with the future and focus their efforts on future-orientated goals.

 

There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, and children's museums. Amongst the world's largest and most visited museums are the Louvre in Paris, the National Museum of China in Beijing, the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the British Museum in London, the National Gallery in London, and Metropolitan Museum of Artin New York City.

As of the 2010s, the continuing acceleration in the digitization of information, combined with the increasing capacity of digital information storage, is causing the traditional model of museums (i.e. as static bricks-and-mortar "collections of collections" of three-dimensional specimens and artifacts) to expand to include virtual exhibits and high-resolution images of their collections that patrons can peruse, study, and explore from any place with Internet.^{[citation needed]} According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries.^[2]