This e-Portfolio is created for pair work assessment for EIC453: Global Englishes. I have collected and assembled data on English language in England, the United Kingdom.

• England, United Kingdom

Hello and welcome! I’m Nurshahera Aisya binti Shamsul Kamal, a student in the Bachelor of Applied Language Studies (Hons) in English for Intercultural Communication (LG243).

This e-Portfolio is a collaborative project for our course, EIC453: Global Englishes, where we explore the diversity of English around the world. For my part, I focused on gathering and presenting insights into the unique characteristics and usage of English in Australia.

- The history of English begins when the Anglo-Saxons (tribes from modern-day Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands) arrived in Britain.

- They brought their languages with them, and Old English was formed. This early form of English was very different from what we speak today and was heavily influenced by languages like Old Norse (from Viking invasions) and Latin (from Christian missionaries).

2. Middle English (1150–1500 AD):

- After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the Normans (from France) took over, and their language, Old French, had a huge impact on English. Many French words related to law, government, and culture were added to English vocabulary.

- English also started changing in grammar, and over time, it became more like the Middle English spoken during this period. This is the language of famous works like Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.

3. Early Modern English (1500–1700 AD):

- A major shift happened with the Great Vowel Shift, a change in how vowels were pronounced.

- The invention of the printing press in the late 15th century helped standardize English spelling and grammar, making it more uniform across the country.

- This period also saw the works of William Shakespeare and the translation of the Bible into English (the King James Bible), which had a big influence on the language.

4. Modern English (1700–Present):

- By the 18th century, English grammar and vocabulary were largely fixed in a form that closely resembles what we use today.

- Over time, English continued to grow, absorbing words from many other languages due to the British Empire's global reach.

- Today, English is spoken by millions of people worldwide and continues to evolve, influenced by new technologies, cultures, and global communication.

Old English came from Anglo-Saxon tribes, Middle English was shaped by the Normans, Early Modern English saw major changes and the spread of printing, and Modern English is the version we speak today, which has continued to evolve with global influences.

Vowel shifts occur when the pronunciation of vowel sounds changes over time or across dialects, leading to distinct phonetic variations. For example, in some accents, diphthongs like /aɪ/ (as in guide or life) and /aʊ/ (as in house or cow) can shift to different sounds such as [ɔɪ], [æy], or even front, unrounded variants like [æ1]. These shifts are a common feature in various English dialects, including the West Country accent (Wikipedia, 2023).

In the West Country accent, specific vowel shifts can be observed in common phrases:

1. In the sentence “How does she know about the song or anything? And that was the most mind-blowing thing to me,” the word thing might be pronounced with a more fronted vowel, such as [θɪŋ], reflecting the West Country shift in diphthong sounds.

2. In “Well, it’s not a secret anymore. But it’s coming out tomorrow,” the word tomorrow could show a shift in the diphthong /əʊ/, potentially pronounced as [oʊ], following the regional vowel patterns typical of West Country speech.

3. In “She was just here. I was like, I just missed you,” the word here might be pronounced with a more fronted or monophthongal vowel, sounding like /hɪə/, which aligns with the vowel changes associated with this accent.

• Rhoticity

According to Sanyal (2023), many southern colonists were originally from England’s West Country regions, such as Somerset and Gloucestershire, and they brought their distinct accent to the American colonies. This accent was marked by the strong pronunciation of the “r” sound after vowels and a unique voicing of “s” sounds as “z,” known as “Zummer zet.” Remnants of this accent can still be heard in isolated communities, like Tangier Island in Chesapeake Bay.

Examples from the interview:

• Words: In the West Country accent, this word might be pronounced as /wɜːdz/ rather than the more common /wɜːdz/ in RP.

• Was: The pronunciation may sound like /wɑːz/, keeping the “r” sound strongly in place after the vowel, instead of the non-rhotic /wɒz/ in RP.

• Shows: The speaker might pronounce this as /ʃəʊz/, with the “s” sounding like a “z” instead of the more standard /ʃəʊz/ in other accents.

Age: 23

Country of Origin: England, United Kingdom

Occupation: Student

Age: 24 (born May 11, 1999)

Country of Origin: Pensylvania, United States

Occupation: Singer, songwriter, and actress

The Swedes, who founded the New Sweden colony in 1638 with Fort Christina (now Wilmington, Delaware) as its centre, were the first Europeans to settle in what would become Pennsylvania (Thompson & Miller, 2024). The Dutch quickly followed, establishing commercial posts along the Delaware River. During this time, Swedish and Dutch were the most widely spoken languages, but via political scheming and economic contacts, English started to gain popularity. After the English took over, the Dutch lost their influence.

2) 1664: English Conquest

The English took control of the area, including portions of present-day Pennsylvania, in 1664 when they took New Amsterdam from the Dutch and renamed it New York. The foundation for the English language's ultimate domination was laid by this conquest, which signaled the start of English political and cultural power.

3) 1681-1701: William Penn and the Founding of Pennsylvania

In 1681, King Charles II granted a royal charter to William Penn, a prominent Quaker, to establish a new colony in the New World. This grant was part of a debt repayment owed to Penn’s father (Tolles, 2024). Penn envisioned Pennsylvania as a haven for religious freedom and tolerance, attracting a diverse group of settlers, including Quakers, Welsh, Irish, Dutch, and German immigrants. While English was the official language, the colony's diversity meant that many other languages were spoken. In 1682, William Penn founded the city of Philadelphia, which quickly grew into a major port and commercial hub. Penn's "Frame of Government" established a representative assembly and guaranteed freedom of religion, attracting even more settlers and solidifying the use of English in official matters. In 1701, Penn issued the Charter of Privileges, which served as the colony’s constitution and granted significant religious and political freedoms, reflecting English legal traditions. The Charter of Privileges, which reflected English legal traditions and acted as the colony's constitution, was issued by Penn in 1701. It gave notable political and religious freedoms.

4) 1776: Declaration of Independence

The American Revolution was significantly influenced by Philadelphia. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed at a meeting of the Continental Congress (Kiffel-Alcheh, 2021) . Philadelphia became a representation of English political ideas and American liberty as a result of this incident. Pennsylvania played a vital role in the Revolutionary War by supplying leadership, men, and supplies. The war effort relied heavily on the employment of English as the language of coordination and command.

5) 1787: U.S. Constitution

The U.S. Constitution was written during the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. This English-language paper, which outlined the foundation for the new administration, was impacted by English common law and Enlightenment principles.

6) 1790-1800: Temporary U.S. Capital

While Washington, D.C., was being built, Philadelphia was the temporary capital of the United States from 1790 to 1800. The city had a great deal of social and political activity during this time, which further cemented its significance in American history (Maria, 2022) .

7) 19th Century: Industrial Growth

Pennsylvania saw tremendous industrial growth in the 19th century, especially in the coal and steel industries. Cities like Scranton and Pittsburgh developed into major industrial hubs. English became the dominant language as a result of the industrial development, which attracted a large number of immigrants, particularly those from the British Isles, who carried their English language and cultural customs with them. American English spread and became more standardized as a result of the rich cultural institutions that Pennsylvania's cities produced, such as theatres, libraries, and newspapers.

8) 20th Century and Beyond

Pennsylvania's economy continued to change during the 20th century, moving from heavy manufacturing to a more diversified sector that encompassed services, technology, and education. The state is still an important cultural and historical institution because of its lengthy history and its part in the creation and development of the United States. English usage continues to be a crucial component of its character, shaped by societal change and immigration waves.

a) Rhoticity

Rhoticity is the term used to describe how the /r/ sound is pronounced in specific word locations, especially at the post-vocalic position at the end of a syllable or word. American English and British English accents can be differentiated from one another by this characteristic. American English is an example of a rhotic accent. The sound /r/ is pronounced in all locations, including before consonants and at the end of syllables, in rhotic accents. Rhoticity provides words that end in /r/ a "fuller" sound in American English. Examples that are seen from the interview of Sabrina Carpenter:

Words - /wɜrdz/

First - /fɜrst/

Tour - /tʊr/

b) Diphthongs

A diphthong is a complex vowel sound that begins with one vowel and smoothly transitions into another within the same syllable. Because they glide from one vowel sound to another, diphthongs give speech a dynamic aspect and give each dialect its own unique sound pattern. Compared to British English, American English typically has more pronounced and distinct diphthongs. Examples that are seen from the interview of Sabrina Carpenter:

“O” Diphthong (/oʊ/)

Don’t - /doʊnt/

Know - /noʊ/

So - /soʊ/

Only - /oʊnli/

a) Intonation

Intonation refers to the patterns of pitch (or tone) that speech uses to express meaning that goes beyond the meaning of particular words or phrases. A sentence's grammatical structure, emotional tone, emphasis, attitude, and other forms of information are all conveyed through the rise and fall of pitch throughout the sentence. In the interview, there are some rising intonation that are used by Sabrina which are:

• “really” (Sentence 1):

Rising intonation here adds intensity, showing that Sabrina struggles to find words that fully capture their gratitude.

• “anything” (Sentence 2):

The rise on “anything” reflects the Sabrina’s disbelief or surprise, emphasizing how unexpected it was for someone to know about the song.

• “anymore” and “tomorrow” (Sentence 3):

The slight rise at the end of “anymore” and “tomorrow” conveys anticipation and hints that Sabrina is eager for what’s coming.

b) Stress patterns

Stress is the attention given to specific words or syllables, which makes them the main focus of a statement. The front, middle, or back apostrophe (') location determines which syllables of a word are stressed. An apostrophe placed before a word will emphasize the first consonant in the first syllable. This might elicit stronger feelings and make meaning more clear.

• “grateful” /ˈɡreɪtfəl/ and “listening” /ˈlɪsənɪŋ/

The apostrophe are located at the front of words which means the first syllables needs to be stressed. This is because it underlines the speaker’s heartfelt appreciation, showing that they deeply value their audience’s support.

• “tomorrow” /təˈmɔroʊ/

The apostrophe is on the second syllable which means it needs to be stressed there. stress on “tomorrow” adds a sense of urgency or anticipation for her concert.

a) Spelling

1. Use of Contractions:

Contractions like “I’m,” “don’t,” “it’s,” “I’ve,” and “she’s” make the tone more conversational and less formal. Contractions contribute to a natural flow, suggesting spoken dialogue rather than formal writing.

2. Repetition of Words:

Words like “just” and “so” appear multiple times across sentences, emphasizing key emotional moments. This repetition reinforces the speaker’s emotions, adding authenticity to their expressions.

b) Onomasiological

How different words can refer to the same concept.

• The speaker could have used “surprised” or “amazed”, but chose “mind-blowing” to emphasize the emotional intensity of the moment.

• The phrase “coming out” instead of “being released” feels more informal and dynamic, enhancing the conversational tone.

Historical Origins:

• Old English Influence: West Country English has its roots in the Old English spoken by the Anglo-Saxon settlers who arrived in Britain in the 5th century. Over time, it absorbed influences from other languages, including Cornish, Welsh, and Old Norse (due to Viking invasions).

• Isolated Communities: Because of the region's relative geographical isolation (with many rural areas and coastal communities), West Country English developed separately from other dialects in the UK.

Intonation is all about how we say something, not just the words themselves. Every language has its own melody and structure when speaking, and in English, intonation is an essential way to communicate meaning beyond the words. There are specific patterns in English intonation that give us clues about how a sentence should be understood emotionally or contextually. According to Joseph Hudson (2016), two typical patterns in British English are:

1. The high-fall ↘

This pattern is very common in British English, where the pitch starts high and then drops low. It’s used in many types of speech, such as statements, questions, and exclamations. The higher the starting pitch, the more interested or emphatic the speaker sounds.

• Example: “What a lovely surprise!”

• In the West Country accent, this pattern might be expressed with a noticeable drop in pitch at the end of the sentence. The accent is often slower, with more emphasis on certain syllables. The higher pitch at the beginning and the drop at the end might make the sentence sound even more expressive, with a slight drawl that adds warmth and enthusiasm to the statement.

2. The implicational fall-rise ↘↗

This intonation pattern starts with a fall in pitch and then rises again, often conveying subtlety, reservation, or a hidden meaning, like implying something without saying it directly.

• Example: “He’s a good dancer.”

• In the West Country accent, this pattern could show a more relaxed or informal tone. While the fall-rise intonation can suggest reservation or a hint of sarcasm, the West Country accent’s melodic quality might soften the effect. The rise at the end can also make the sentence feel more reflective or less direct, which is typical in this accent’s more laid-back speech style.

• Stress

In a West Country accent, like in other regional accents, stress is important, but they may be used a bit differently compared to other English accents (Hudson, 2016).

Here’s how the definition and examples fit with the West Country accent:

1. “I don’t believe it.”

In a West Country accent, the stress might fall on the word “believe” the same way, but the accent will make it sound different. For instance, the vowel sounds might be pronounced more clearly, and the pitch could be a bit more melodic or sing-songy, which is typical of the West Country. In this accent, speakers might also emphasize certain vowels, making them sound fuller or more drawn-out.

2. “Could I ask you something?”

In a West Country accent, the word “ask” would still be stressed, but you might hear a slight difference in the pronunciation of the vowel sounds. For example, the “a” sound in “ask” might sound more like “ah” rather than the flat “a” in other accents. The pitch might be more even or have a rising intonation toward the end of the question, which can give it a musical or flowing quality.

3. “What’s the point of making this sentence so long?”

In the West Country accent, the word “point” would still be stressed, but you might hear it pronounced more strongly with a different vowel sound. The tone might be more emphatic, and the speech could have a more rhythmic or “bouncy” feel. This accent often has a slower pace with more emphasis on certain syllables, giving the sentence a bit of a drawl, especially on stressed words.

According to Wikipedia, although English is spoken in various dialects across different countries and regions, the differences in English spelling are generally minimal. The most significant variations are between British and American spelling. Many of these differences stem from a period before standardized spelling rules were established. For example, some spellings now considered “American” were once commonly used in Britain, while certain “British” spellings were once prevalent in the United States.

1. -our vs. -or

In British English, many words that refer to a quality or state are spelled with -our, while in American English, they are typically spelled with -or. This difference usually appears in adjectives and nouns related to states or qualities.

Examples:

• British: colour, flavour, honour

• American: color, flavor, honor

The shift from -our to -or in American English simplifies the spelling, making it more phonetic and easier to write.

2. -ise vs. -ize

Another common difference is the use of -ise in British English versus -ize in American English for verbs derived from adjectives or nouns. This is especially seen in verbs like realize or organize.

Examples:

• British: realise, organise, recognise

• American: realize, organize, recognize

In British English, both forms -ise and -ize can be used, but -ize is more common in American English.

3. -re vs. -er

Words that end in -re in British English are usually spelled with -er in American English. This is often seen in nouns referring to places or items.

Examples:

• British: centre, theatre, metre

• American: center, theater, meter

The -er ending in American English is a simplification of the -re ending found in British English. Both forms derive from different historical roots of the language.

4. -ll vs. -l

In British English, certain verbs are spelled with -ll in the present participle and past tense forms, while American English often drops one l and uses -l.

Examples:

• British: travelling, cancelled, fulfil

• American: traveling, canceled, fulfill

The rule here is that in British English, the double l is maintained when adding suffixes like -ing or -ed, while in American English, only one l is used.

5. -ce vs. -se

Some words in British English are spelled with -ce, while in American English they are spelled with -se, especially in nouns.

Examples:

• British: defence, licence

• American: defense, license

• Vocabulary

Sanyal (2023) discusses how certain words and their meanings have diverged between British and American English. For instance, in American English, mad means “angry” and fall refers to “autumn,” while these meanings are expressed differently in British English. Regional terms like scallion (for spring onion), originally from northern England, are now commonly used across the U.S. The phrase I guess, often criticized as an Americanism by British speakers, actually traces its origins to Middle English, highlighting how some expressions have persisted in American English.

1. Truck (US) vs. Lorry (UK) – In the U.S., a large vehicle used for transporting goods is called a truck, while in the UK, it is referred to as a lorry.

2. Apartment (US) vs. Flat (UK) – The term apartment is commonly used in American English for a place to live within a larger building, whereas British English uses flat.

3. Chips (US) vs. Crisps (UK) – In American English, chips refers to thin, fried potato slices, whereas British English uses crisps for the same food. In the UK, chips refers to what Americans call fries.

/aɪ doʊnt ˈrɪəli hæv ðə wɜrdz fɔr ɪt. aɪm dʒʌst soʊ ˈɡreɪtfəl ðæt jʊ ɡaɪz ɑr ˈlɪsənɪŋ/

2. How does she know about the song or anything? And that was the most mind-blowing thing to me.

/haʊ dʌz ʃi noʊ əˈbaʊt ðə sɔŋ ɔr ˈɛniθɪŋ? ænd ðæt wəz ðə moʊst maɪnd-ˈbloʊɪŋ θɪŋ tə mi/

3. Well, it’s not a secret anymore. But it’s coming out tomorrow.

/wɛl, ɪts nɑt ə ˈsikrət ˌɛniˈmɔr. bʌt ɪts ˈkʌmɪŋ aʊt təˈmɔroʊ/

4. So I’m so excited for everyone to hear it.

/soʊ aɪm soʊ ɪkˈsaɪtəd fɔr ˈɛvrɪwʌn tə hɪr ɪt/

5. She was just here. I was like, I just missed you.

/ʃi wəz dʒʌst hɪr. aɪ wəz laɪk, aɪ dʒʌst mɪst jʊ/

6. It’s my first ever arena tour and I’ve only ever like seen shows there. And I’m so small and those stages so big.

/ɪts maɪ fɜrst ˈɛvər əˈrinə tʊr ənd aɪv ˈoʊnli ˈɛvər laɪk sin ʃoʊz ðɛr. ənd aɪm soʊ smɔl ənd ðoʊz steɪdʒɪz soʊ bɪɡ/