The name was coined  by T.J. Cobden Sanderson during a meeting of the Arts & Crafts Exhibition Society in 1887, even though it began developing 20 years earlier.

The Movement was inspired by the likes of historian Thomas Carlyle, and art critic John Ruskin.

Designer and Innovations: William Morris and Morris & Co.

William Morris, born in 1834 was the biggest founding figure in the Arts & Crafts movement. He was somewhat of a ‘jack of all trades’ but also a master of many. A textile designer, an architectural conservationist, an author and a poet. His works revived the Textile arts of Britain. Morris, born to a wealthy middle-class family, lived a life of privelege. In his early adulthood, Morris studied medieval architecture at the prestigious Oxford University. He spent most of his life working between London and Oxfordshire. Under the influence of medieval history and the works of John Ruskin, an English writer, Morris’ opposition to Industrialization grew. He wished to prevent the alienation of workers and the fruits of their labor. He wanted them to produce their products from start to finish, rather than work in production lines, where they’d perform repetitive, dull, small tasks all day. His aim was to make the public embrace hand-made craftsmanship rather than rely on machinery. His style was inspired by medieval European culture, as well as other traditional cultures, such as Persia and the Islamic world.

One of his biggest ventures was his collaboration with his close friend, Philip Webb. Together, they began developing and designing Morris’ family home; the Red House. Built in 1860, Webb would design the exterior, while Morris and his wife, Jane Morris, worked on the interior. Morris wanted to display hand-made craftsmanship, and he succeeded, as the house became an iconic symbol of the Arts & Crafts movement.

Morris also started a company, Morris & Co. The company would produce furniture, tapestry, wallpapers, and stained glass. Several designers would collaborate together to create things by hand, and would focus on using traditional methods and materials.

Morris & Co. also became a symbol of the Arts and Crafts movement in itself. You can’t look up the movement without a hundred of their textiles and works showing up in your search results. Their work truly left a lasting impression on design.

(Written by Noora Alneyadi)

References
<sup>Moenning, S. (2022). The Life and Art of William Morris: An Artist Biography. Study.com. https://study.com/learn/lesson/william-morris-art-biography.html

Philip Prichard Henderson. (2019). William Morris | British artist and author. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Morris-British-artist-and-author

V&A. (2017). V&A · Introducing William Morris. Victoria and Albert Museum; V&A. https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/introducing-william-morris

‌Hoffman, A. (2010, September 9). Arts & Crafts: The Designs of William Morris. Apartment Therapy; Apartment Therapy, LLC. https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/arts-crafts-the-designs-of-wil-126289

Nast, C. (2021, June 17). Was William Morris the Forefather of Grandmillennial Style? These Morris & Co. Patterns Make the Case. Architectural Digest. https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/160-years-of-morris-and-co-in-8-fabrics-wallpapers-and-tapestries

Golden Lily. (n.d.). In Morris & Co. https://morrisandco.sandersondesigngroup.com/product/wallpaper/archive-wallpapers/golden-lily/dm6p210400/

William Morris age 53. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Morris_age_53.jpg</sup>

https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/what-is-postmodernism 

The Art & Crafts movement, of British and American aesthetics, reached its end in this period as a transition between movements started. It was mainly inspired by the writings of John Ruskin, whose written works encouraged artists/designers to take a closer look at their surrounding landscape to capture the natural world (Design Movements Timeline Arts and Crafts, n.d.). So accordingly pieces at the time are adorned with intricate floral patterns and a more grounding touch.

Innovation
What is truly fascinating is that this movement is a reform and a reaction to the first industrial revolution, critiquing the poor quality mass production of goods. Practitioners of this movement sought to combat this by reviving quality craftsmanship that they believed had declined due to the presence of machinery and factory production. Though there wasn’t a particular style that was being promoted, instead, it was the philosophy that the movement was advocating for, thus products of this time can be seen as a union between the artists and their craft.

Designer: Philip Webb

Dubbed the father of the Arts & Crafts movement was an architect and designer. He is the mind behind the Red House (1859), a building that had become a model for architecture during that era. He grew up in a time wherein buildings were being renovated with machine-made materials rather than using and preserving the original materials used, this was a pivotal experience that would shape his career. Webb is known for his comfortable country homes that adopted traditional, practical and functional designs—utilising conventional English building methods with red brick, Tudor-like chimneys, sash windows, and gables. Gothic and mediaeval styles influenced his work, and the practical designs were a budding seed for what came to be modernism. 

Ultimately the Arts & Crafts movement is a re-evaluation of a certain human quality amidst the shift in the production of design and decorative pieces at a time when machines were taking over. 

The whiplash line is a kind of motif that was defined by its ornamental, asymmetrical, twisting lines, commonly in an S curve. It was a defining feature of the Art Nouveau style, often appearing in furniture, railings, ironwork and posters.  Aubrey Beardsley would incorporate the whiplash in his works frequently.

Aubrey Beardsley was an English illustrator and author in the late 1800’s, whose illustrations impacted the Art Nouveau movement deeply. His style, inspired by Japanese woodcuts, would be comprised of black ink, with thin curved lines and ornamental patterns. Common themes in his illustrations would be grotesque erotica and sensuality. This would grant him the title of the ‘most controversial artist of the Art Nouveau era’ as his illustrations were considered unconventional. Sadly, his career was short-lived due to him contracting tuberculosis.

During the movement, new techniques were developed and commonly used, such as collages and cutouts. Dadaists established a Dada magazine, where they’d publish their montages and cutout poems to spread the ‘Dada message’. You’ll find in the examples provided how their works would mostly focus on these techniques to portray their ideologies and rhetorics.

Photomontages or collages were popularized during the movement. This technique, developed during the cubist movement, was revamped by adding things such as tickets, maps, and plastic wrappers to depict facets of daily life. Additionally, they developed chance collages, a technique in which you drop multiple scraps of paper on a large sheet, and glue-ing said pieces of paper wherever they landed.

Hannah Höch was a German artist born in 1889. She was a key figure in the Berlin chapter of the Dada movement for her intricate and political collages. Some would even consider her to be the creator of photomontages. 

Hannah began her career in studying the applied arts, such as glass design, but that got halted when the first World War began. She then moved back to Berlin and started studying painting and graphic design.  There, she was introduced to the Dadaists by her partner, Raoul Hausmann. She began experimenting with non-objective art, that made no reference to nature. She used cutouts from magazines and newspapers to create her works. She took advantage of her job at a magazine publishing house for unlimited access to images and texts to use in her work.

(Written by Noora Alneyadi)

Artworks and designs at the time mostly consisted of delicate, transparent, geometric shapes, and frequently used primary hues (yellow, red, blue) 

When World War II began, however, the school was shut down due to Nazi pressure. Key figures from Bauhaus then moved to America, which is when the Bauhaus movement made its way outside of Germany, influencing new generations for years to come. László Moholy-Nagy, one of said figures, established a new campus in Chicago, America, calling it the New Bauhaus. The name was later changed to the ‘Institute of Design’ at Illinois Institute of Technology.

Designer: Walter Gropius

Inventor of the Bauhaus, Walter was a German-American born architect. Like Otto Wagner, his works had a major influence on modern architecture. Early in his career, he worked under Peter Behrens, also a leading German architect. Gropius was asked to become the director of Grand Ducal Saxon School of applied Arts, as well as Saxon academy of Fine Arts. He merged the schools to become the ‘Staatliches Bauhaus’ in 1919. His aim was to unite art and technology.

Due to public criticism, Bauhaus was forced to leave the city of Weimar, and move to a newly designed building in Dessau. This building, of course, was designed by Gropius himself. The school went under several changes due to Nazi pressure, and eventually, Gropius had to flee Germany to America. There, he started teaching at Harvard, as his aim and focus were more on education and influencing generations for years to come.

Innovation - Psychedelic art
 "Psychedelic art" most often refers to the counterculture art movement of the late 1960s, which used animation including cartoons, brilliant colors, full spectrums, and highly distorted or surreal imagery to inspire, express, or enhance psychedelic experiences. Psychedelic rock music had a counterpart in the psychedelic visual arts. In addition to the kaleidoscopically swirling color patterns of LSD hallucinations, revolutionary political, social, and spiritual sentiments inspired by insights gained from these psychedelic states of consciousness were also reflected in concert posters, album covers, liquid light shows, liquid light art, murals, comic books, underground newspapers, and more.

Designer - Wes Wilson
An American artist who is renowned for creating psychedelic posters. He created the look that has come to be associated with the peace movement, the psychedelic era. He is best known for creating and popularizing the psychedelic font, which gave the impression that the letters were melting or moving, in the year 1966. His sense of style was heavily influenced by the Art Nouveau movement.

Reference

<sup>Wikipedia Contributors. “Psychedelic Art.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 20 Oct. 2019.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_art

“Wes Wilson.” Wikipedia, 16 Feb. 2020.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes_Wilson

“Otis Rush & His Chicago Blues Band; Grateful Dead, Fillmore Auditorium, February 24--26, 1967.” SFMOMA, www.sfmoma.org/artwork/95.663/.

Wilson, Wes. “Www.Wes-Wilson.com.” Www.Wes-Wilson.com, www.wes-wilson.com/.

Written by: Earl Carino (5001571)</sup>

He was a teacher at the Zurich school of arts and crafts. Recognized for his simple design and clean use of typography Zurich had a lot of influence in the development of this movement. He helped spread the Swiss aesthetic beyond the borders of Europe by establishing the New Graphic Design journal, a trilingual magazine.

Besides the magazine, teaching and serving as design consultant, Müller also authored several books on graphic designing. Some of his notable works include The Graphic Artist and his Design Problems, History of Visual Communication and Grid Systems in Graphic Design. His work has inspired many until now, for example in flat design you see a lot of similarities and techniques being used.

In his illustration period he wanted to explore the limits of his artistic ability, until he was 30 he had been trying out various styles and techniques to find out where his talent might lie. He had the idea, in 1955, of founding a periodical for rational and constructive graphic design to counter the excessively irrational that he saw around .He allowed the idea to develop and then asked some of his mentors if they would like to collaborate. He is remembered as the most influential designer during the Swiss era.

References:
https://www.eyemagazine.com/feature/article/reputations-josef-muller-brockmann 

https://www.hellocreativeagency.com/blog/design-through-the-decades-the-1970s 

https://www.printmag.com/featured/swiss-style-principles-typefaces-designers/#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20the%20grid,Style%20that%20we%20know%20today 

https://www.printmag.com/featured/swiss-style-principles-typefaces-designers/#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20the%20grid,Style%20that%20we%20know%20today 

Innovation
The movement sought innovative ways to implement the modernity they were striving for, a product of originality and expression of the designers/artists with their crafts. Leopold Forstner had extensively worked with stained glass, a significant presence during the Vienna Secession, he worked closely with architects namely Otto Wagner, and designed the windows for the buildings being made. Another highlighted fixture during this movement was the use of ceramic tiles for the interior and facades of buildings, it had its decorative purposes with wall mosaics, and, a practical function as the facade can be efficiently hosed down to be cleaned.

Involvement of textiles came from foreign influences, for example, Klimt incorporated these textile patterns into his work after being exposed to Japanese textiles and Byzantine mosaics; Particularly Japan’s influence holds much weight as practitioners of this movement believed that Japanese designs followed their principle of a seamless inclusion of design into everyday life.

Style - Abstract Expressionism
Abstract Expressionism first appeared in the 1940s and 1950s and is focused on a common interest in using abstraction to express and/or evoke emotion in works of art. American painters located mostly in New York in the post-World War II era, commonly referred to as the "New York School," started utilizing a variety of methods and displaying a variety of styles to portray their feelings and views in a wholly abstracted manner. Since then, this movement has had a significant impact and influence.The art of abstract expressionism started to take shape as a means through which the artists may go after these goals. It also served to shield them from any definite or damaging interpretation of their work.

Designer - Max Huber

One of the greatest Swiss graphic designers of the 20th century was Max Huber. He created the cover art for music periodicals, CDs, and performance stages. He also held international exhibitions of his work and taught painting.Huber believed that design has the ability to restore human values following a conflict. This humanistic design philosophy was very well-liked in Europe in the 1950s.


Innovation - International Typographic Style
In the 1950s, Switzerland and Germany saw the emergence of the International Typographic Style, commonly referred to as the Swiss Style. Through the use of compositional grids and sans serif typography as the main design elements, ITS became recognized for design that prioritized objective clarity or element.The International Typographic Style emerged as a modernist graphic movement that aimed to communicate ideas simply and effectively across cultures. The International Typographic Style was developed in its early years by two significant Swiss design schools.The style developed out of a desire to express data in an objective manner, free from the effect of connected meaning. As a modernist graphic trend, the International Typographic Style grew out of the need to communicate ideas simply and effectively across cultures. The foundation of the International Typographic Style was laid by two important Swiss design schools.

In the early 70s she was mainly working in weaving and painting. Eventually she felt that her artwork didn't have so much meaning so around 1976 she quit working with art for a while. She took a few teaching positions and began making art again in 1977. By the end of the 70s she developed her signature style, using large scaled black and white images with overlaid text. Her art was feminist and it had clear direct commentary towards the audience. Like in one her most famous ones “ YOUR body is a battleground”. 

She addresses media and politics with this direct and sensational narrative. Bringing the viewer into each piece of her art, her work interrogates our own positions, questioning the system through language and image, is an impressive mix and has so much impact on the audience, whatever it may be, pleasing for some and offensive for others.

References:
https://www.thebroad.org/art/barbara-kruger 

David is an American graphic designer, he is known for its strong impact into the typography of the Grunge movement and also for helping shape the aesthetics of the grunge era. He actually graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology and then took designing classes and workshops afterwards. He started his work as a designer later in life. David firstly worked as a designer for magazines where he was experimenting and practicing his design skills, for example when he covered surfers’ interested at Self and Musician magazine. 

During his time at Transworld Skateboarding, he developed a signature style with the use of “dirty” type photographic techniques. His experimentation with typography, ripping and remaking of letters, produced bold and provocative covers. As his designs were recognized for its unique style and typography, he consequently earned over hundred design awards.  However, at the same time that his provocative style attracted many readers it also bothered some, its photos overlapping each other and the chaotic typography was considered by some to be misleading design. 

Carson admits that his design is experimental, intuitive and it has nothing to do with formal design, however when you look at his work you still see some form of respect towards rules of composition and proportion, there are visible contrats, because obviously it still has to be readable by the audience. Some important tips from David Carson when it comes to the Grunge style includes: use emotional typography, get inspiration from your daily life and break the rules but still respect them.

Reference:
https://www.famousgraphicdesigners.org/david-carson 

https://blog.flipsnack.com/5-useful-design-tips-from-the-father-of-grunge-david-carson/ 

https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/grunge-art-style-design-typography 

https://news.mediaheroes.com.au/blog/the-grittiness-of-grunge 

The principle behind deconstructionism was to invent the impossible. It breaks with the structural norms of classic buildings and deforms the elementary architectural principles. It came to public notice with the 1982, or demolishing of a constructed structure, whether it being for structural reasons or just an act of rebellion. 

This movement opposed rationalism to modernism with its fragmented volumes and disproportionate volumes that have been shattered or shredded. It can be literally translated as demolishing of a constructed structure. This style brings out an infinite number of possibilities of gathering forms and shapes to create a structure, there are no right angles and it lacks harmony, linearity and continuity. However it is not a rebellious or messy style of design, it simply has the ability to change the customary way in which we perceive space. 

The Russian Constructivists during the First World War broke the rules of classic architecture and presented a series of drawings that defined the geometric norms at the time. Their critical point of view with forms disturbed the traditional perception of architecture and created endless possibilities of breaking the rules for design.

Designer: Zara Hadid

Zaha Hadid was an architect known for her radical deconstructivist designs. She received a Bachelor’s degree in Mathematics at an American University in Lebanon. In 1979, she established her own London-based firm, Zaha Hadid Architects Hadid. She solidified her reputation as an architect of built works in 2000, when work began 

on her design for a new Lois & Richard Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art in Ohio. 

Hadid’s accomplishments were all the more remarkable considering she was working in an industry largely dominated by men. It was a time where it was uncommon for women to become architects, because radical modernisation and social reform were taking place in Iraq.

Her style is composed by her aggressive geometric style that has a sense of fragmentation, instability, and movement. Over time, the hard lines and sharp angles that defined Hadid's early work began to soften into sumptuous curves and undulating planes.She would always hold true to her belief in complexity and fluidity in the built environment.

This woman is inspirational.

Reference:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zaha-Hadid#:~:text=Zaha%20Hadid%20was%20an%20architect,art%20and%20architecture%20in%20Rome 

https://www.archdaily.com/899645/what-is-deconstructivism 

The style in the movement is bold and focuses on highly readable typography, unlike other movements like grunge, the letters are not just basic but are not full of emotion and detail either. The strongest characteristics of it lie on the side of simplicity of shapes and elements, reminding us a lot of Swiss design. Some even say that Flat design is an updated version of Swiss design. Following similar guidelines, like for example grid systems. 

The movement avoids textures and gradients as you can see in the example on the art by Renato Hayashi, it is clean and visually appealing to most audiences, sending a clear message of what the author wishes to convey. 

Technology
Applies the principles of grid (from Swiss style) geometric approach and visual balance. 

In flat design you are to find big companies like Microsoft dominating the creation of this movement as it really based its principal in the old movement of swiss, bold and simple.

However Renato Hayashi is a brazilian designer that owns a company named Tokyo Design Studio, where he is a designer and architect that works with Flat Design. He is always connected with art and design looking for the relation between men and the visual universe within the aesthetic of a day to day routine. As a current practitioner of this movement, you can find recent work of his in Behance and Linked-in. His use of straight lines and bright colors is very clear and does justice to the characteristics of Flat Design. 

Graduated in 1982 from the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism at USP, in addition to being an architect, he is a Graphic Designer and has developed numerous projects in the areas of Packaging, Visual Identity, Illustration, Signage, Editorial and Promotional Design.

Reference:
https://www.behance.net/gallery/26416355/Posters 

https://uxplanet.org/flat-design-history-benefits-and-practice-c2b092955f14 

Bold and graphic, the Scandinavian graphic design remains clean while using simple imagery to make its point in posters, typography, and marketing. Clean lines and uncluttered visuals are all prominent in Scandinavian graphic design. Often, a few lines are used to create a suggestion of an idea, and the visual language relies on the use of negative space.   Clever in its design allowing the viewer to fill in the blanks,  recognizable even if it's bare. Functionality is the key, as Scandinavian graphic design aims to give as much information through as few markings as possible (McCrory, 2021).

Is an architect, who adopted organic and humanistic forms in his design concepts, a pioneer in his field he made a breakthrough by developing a process for obtaining curves more than 90 degrees in wood. There was a naturalistic nature in his designs as he believed that anything in contact with people should be human-centred thus his designs are often inspired by his surroundings and natural materials. His passion tied with his experimentation to achieve more than the known bounds cultivated such a legacy that still influences a lot of people today.

A great number of practitioners were involved in the printmaking process, producing images in large batches. Lichtenstein, known for lithography work— a process that involves a stone or metal plate, cultivated his signature style with this procedure. Oftentimes, appropriation of imagery occurred as artists/designers would include it into their work with alterations or not. This led to broaching the boundaries between the high and low art cultures, towards the separation of the distinctive forms of advertisement/media from fine art (Invaluable, 2018).



<sub>References:

The Art Story. (2012). Pop Art Movement Overview. The Art Story. https://www.theartstory.org/movement/pop-art/

Invaluable. (2018, September 25). What is Pop Art? Techniques, Artists, and Examples that Shaped the Movement. Invaluable. https://www.invaluable.com/blog/what-is-pop-art/

Koch, E. (2014, August 17). English: Tentoonstelling Roy Lichtenstein in Stedelijk Museum . Hier voor een van zijn doeken (Anefo, Ed.). Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40723533

Haring, K. (2015). [Online image]. In WIDEWALLS. https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/pop-art-artists

By:
(5001484) Sharee Drew</sub>

Charles Thomas Close, also known as Chuck Close, is known for his large-scale photorealist and abstract portraits of both himself and others. With the aid of a very large format camera, Close also produced portrait photos. He changed his painting techniques and working methods after becoming paralyzed in 1988 due to an obstruction of the anterior spinal artery.

Innovation: Painting
When Chuck Close was paralyzed following a rare case of spinal artery collapse. Through rehabilitation, he regained his ability to paint by using a brush-holding device strapped to his wrist and forearm.Painting is the two-dimensional visual language used to express thoughts and feelings while also achieving specific aesthetic attributes. On a flat surface, the shapes, lines, colors, tones, and textures of this language are used in a variety of ways to evoke feelings of volume, space, movement, and light.

<sup>Reference

Wikipedia Contributors. “Chuck Close.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 6 Oct. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Close.

Owen, Peter D. “Painting | History, Elements, Techniques, Types, & Facts.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 28 Jan. 2019, www.britannica.com/art/painting.

“Chuck Close | Agnes (1998) | Artsy.” Www.artsy.net, www.artsy.net/artwork/chuck-close-agnes.

Written by: Earl Carino (5001571)</sup>

INNOVATION - EMOTIONAL TYPOGRAPHY

Emotional Typography is a complex relationship with emotion.Emotion resulting from any typographic experience is a complicated system involving the person's previous cultural context, their environment, formal design principles, and psychology. Designers accomplish this through visual communication.You'll see that all of David's layouts for the Ray Gun magazine are typography-based and convey the unique moods of the decade's music. He is aware that letterforms can convey a particular mood based on their size, color, and placement in the composition. Because it has a greater impact, he wanted his work to evoke an emotional response in viewers.

INNOVATION - VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Visual communication is the use of visual components, such as signage, typography, drawings, graphic design, illustrations, industrial design, advertising, animation, and electronic resources, to transmit ideas and information.In order to develop a layout for a magazine, David Carson first read the article and then attempted to visually portray the idea and message. The Ray Gun experience was a time of unrestricted visual experimentation. According to him, there were no layout or grid requirements to follow. The magazine's visual direction was left to the designers to be communicated via the music.

<sup>Reference

“Typographic Emotions.” Www.aetherpoint.com, www.aetherpoint.com/blogpost/typographic-emotions/.

Wikipedia Contributors. “Visual Communication.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Oct. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_communication.

“5 Useful Design Tips from the “Father of Grunge”, David Carson.” Flipsnack Blog, 19 May 2016, blog.flipsnack.com/5-useful-design-tips-from-the-father-of-grunge-david-carson/.


“David Carson | Cover, Ray Gun 5 (1993) | MutualArt.” Www.mutualart.com, www.mutualart.com/Artwork/Cover--Ray-Gun-5/C5A8AE7B770F6C7F.


“David Carson | GD 203.” Go.distance.ncsu.edu, go.distance.ncsu.edu/gd203/?p=52113.

Written by: Earl Carino (5001571)</sup>

INNOVATION - ARCHITECTURAL RENDERING

The process of producing two- and three-dimensional pictures of a potential architectural design is known as architectural rendering. In order to effectively represent design intent, the goal is to provide a realistic experience of how a place or building would look before it is completed.

INNOVATION -  RADICAL DECONSTRUCTIVIST DESIGNS

Deconstructivism is a postmodern architectural trend that first emerged in the 1980s. It conveys the idea that the built structure is disjointed, which is typically shown by a lack of visible symmetry, continuity, or harmony. Deconstructionism's masterful manipulation of the architectural design framework into erratic shapes or forms enables architects to create structures with highly respectable aesthetic sense.

<sup>Reference

Wikipedia Contributors. “Deconstructivism.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 July 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstructivism.

“The Impacts of Deconstructivism towards the Future of New Zealand Architecture Designs.” Www.ukessays.com, www.ukessays.com/essays/architecture/the-impacts-of-deconstructivism-towards-the-future-of-new-zealand-architecture-designs.php. Accessed 21 Oct. 2022.

Wikipedia Contributors. “Zaha Hadid.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 13 May 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaha_Hadid.

“Metropolis - Zaha Hadid.” Google Arts & Culture, artsandculture.google.com/asset/metropolis/dAFiRNciz8P5JA?hl=en-GB.

Written by: Earl Carino (5001571)</sup>