Short-term memory is information stored for a limited time before it is either forgotten or processed. There are two types: working memory and immediate memory.

According to Sousa (2022), immediate memory allows sensory data to move from the thalamus to the cortex, which is held for up to 30 seconds (p. 42). For example, immediate memory is when students are exposed to a new word and asked to repeat it. If the word is unfamiliar and lacks personal connection, the student will likely forget both the word and its meaning.

Working memory is information temporarily stored and processed in the frontal lobe. Sousa (2022) explains that it “captures our focus and demands our attention” (p. 44). Games such as “Simon Says” or giving two-step directions can help students focus and complete the task successfully. However, preschoolers need a lot of repetition and practice to transfer short-term information to long-term memory so that they can later remember it and apply it to new situations.

There are also two types of declarative memory: episodic and semantic. Episodic memory occurs when preschoolers recall a particular event (Psychology Today, n.d.), like falling off their bike, going to the dentist, or having a birthday. Semantic memory is the person's long-term storage of knowledge (Sousa, 2022, p. 75). This can be as simple as preschoolers knowing their ABCs, colors, or friends' names.

Nondeclarative memory is information that cannot be explained and is implicit "without conscious awareness that it's being recalled" (Psychology Today, n.d.). For example, washing your hands or going to the bathroom is information that does "not require the intentional recall of experiences" (Sousa, 2022, p. 75). Some examples of nondeclarative memory are "procedural memory, perceptual representation system, classical conditioning, and nonassociative learning" (Sousa, 2022, p. 75). Procedural memory refers to the cognitive and motor skills of remembering how to do something, such as riding a bike or bouncing a ball. In preschool, students are beginning to develop procedural memory. The perceptual representation system allows individuals to remember information based on prior experiences. For example, if a student sees an A, they automatically say, an A—they just know. In preschool, this memory is beginning to develop. Classical conditioning is when students connect one thing to another. An example is when students hear my phone timer, they know they have five minutes to clean up, or when they hear the fire alarm, they know it is just a practice and we need to go outside away from danger. Usually, there is a stimulus that creates a response. Classical conditioning is something we learn to do. Nonassociative learning is when students get used to something and stop reacting to it. For example, in my class, the half-day hallway bell rings at noon. Initially, students would get startled by it, but not now. This is known as habituation, and sensitization is when students react more and more to something. Luckily, this has not happened in my classroom. I try to decrease sensitization because I do not want students to feel scared. When they are calm and regulated, they are more ready to learn.

In preschool, this is especially important because we have to get students' attention, either through visually appealing things or sounds or by provoking any of the senses, especially since preschoolers' attention is so short. As educators, we may use novel or visually appealing toys to capture children's attention so that information in sensory memory can transfer to short-term memory, where learning and recall begin.

Now, retention is the ability to store and use information when needed, while transfer refers to the apply new knowledge to new situations (Sousa, 2022, p.79). For example, in preschool, when students identify colors, letters, or shapes in their environment, not just in the classroom, they demonstrate retention. Another example of students learning and transferring their new knowledge to new situations is when they learn to clean up toys in their classroom and use them in other classrooms, like their specials and extracurricular activities, showing transferring and retention skills.

Retention and transfer rely on long-term memory. Certain strategies, such as rehearsing information, using the primacy-relevancy effect, and using different teaching styles (Sousa, 2022), enhance retention and transfer skills. As teachers, our job is to maximize retention so students can eventually transfer skills to other grades and throughout life.

Rote rehearsal is when students remember and store things in the same way they were learned (Sousa, 2022, p. 79). For example, the ABC song and other songs are examples of rote rehearsal because when asked, some preschoolers cannot answer, “What is after the letter B?” Instead of answering the question, they have to sing the song again, the same way they learned it.

Elaborative rehearsal is when students connect the information they learned to new situations (Sousa, 2022, p.80). As teachers, this is our goal: We want students to be able to learn things and apply them in new situations. For example, after direct instruction about counting, students may begin to count the number of cars or objects they collect outside, linking what they have learned to a new experience. By applying the skills, they learned to a new situation, they retain information, also known as elaborative rehearsal.

Sousa (2022) also mentions that there is "more retention [...] when lessons are shorter and meaningful" (Sousa, 2022, p. 84), meaning shorter is better. In preschool, this is not a challenge since circle times are typically 15 minutes. Because of these short teaching windows, it is important for teachers to strategically plan how to use their time to ensure they teach important information during the beginning or end of class.

For example, in preschool, it is our job to make the first 7-11 minutes and the last 2–3 minutes of circle time as engaging, meaningful, and interactive as possible so that students can retain as much information as possible — especially since at a young age, they are like little sponges, absorbing information quickly.

Even though the middle portion (downtime) shows less retention, it can still be used effectively. This middle time can be used to practice or reinforce the new skill (Sousa, 2022, p. 110).

Allowing students to practice skills is also important because sensory-rich and meaningful senses enhance retention. Additionally, strategically pairing advanced learning with those who need support can reinforce retention for both groups of students.

  Regardless, no one teaching method is best; on the contrary, using a variety of approaches helps make learning more accessible and supports retention

The hippocampus and the amygdala are associated with memory processing, transferring information from working to long-term memory (Grand Canyon University, n.d.). The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure attached to the hippocampus that plays an important role in emotions since it processes strong emotions and eventually stores them as long-term memories (Sousa, 2022, p. 17). Children who have experienced trauma may be triggered by sound, smell, or other senses, therefore triggering the amygdala, causing children to enter the fight-or-flight response. Students in this state do not “recognize the difference between a threat then and a threat now” (Lebow, 2021). It is as if they are experiencing the traumatic experience for the first time, sending stress signals to the brain, and releasing stress hormones known as cortisol.

The brain enters survival mode when a person feels extremely stressed, scared, or angry—this is known as the amygdala hijack. The amygdala hijack bypasses the cortex, which becomes less active (Lebow, 2021), reducing cognitive and executive functioning. Research states that prolonged stress impairs the ability to regulate emotions and reduces the volume of the hippocampus, thus impacting memory (Barberini et al., 2024). Memory and retention are impacted because the brain is in survival mode.

Dr. Bruce Perry mentions in his book that when people experience PTSD or traumatic experiences, they tend to lose track of time and other executive function skills (Perry & Winfrey, 2021). Dr. Bruce Perry also mentions the three R’s: Regulate, Relate, and Reason (PBS Learning Media, n.d.). In order for students to be able to reason and access higher order thinking skills, we need to help students regulate and relate. Regulate means that we help students feel safe and secure and have their psychological needs met first (McLeod, 2024). In preschool, this is essential, as I ensure students are well fed, take a good nap, and help in other ways to meet their physical needs. Relate means students have a trusted relationship with someone, which I ensure by creating a safe learning environment. Finally, students will be able to reason, but building skills from the bottom up is important since this is how our brain develops (PBS LearningMedia, n.d.). Once students are regulated and can relate to a trusted person, they can reason, retain information, and access higher-order cognitive skills.

Emotions can create a strong positive climate that is essential for all students, not just those who have experienced trauma. A rich learning environment is critical because students need to feel safe and want to go to school (Sousa, 2022, p. 77). As teachers, we must create an "emotional climate" to help students learn, as emotions increase the likelihood that things will be recalled in long-term memory (Banikowski & Mehring, 1999). We can do this with storytelling, such as personal stories, which can help students personally relate to one another or the teacher (Banikowski & Mehring, 1999). Storytelling allows students to recall and reshape information, allowing them to make sense of the information meaningfully (Pihl, 2022). When students personally connect with stories, they are more likely to recall and apply the lessons in real-life situations, such as showing empathy, sharing, or being kind—skills that can be transfered to other settings. settings. Celebrations, games, music, drama, tangible artifacts, pictures, and teacher modeling (Banikowski & Mehring, 199, p. 7) are all great ways to promote emotionally safe classrooms and eliminate threats. When students feel safe, especially those with traumatic experiences, they are more comfortable going to class to learn and do not demonstrate challenging behaviors but instead remember information.

Therefore, as a teacher, I am to create emotional content and an emotionally secure environment for children to make information more meaningful to my preschoolers. Not only will memorable experiences help retain information, but they can also transfer skills like empathy and problem-solving across contexts. An emotionally secure classroom is when teachers have consistent routines and rituals, which allow students to have predictability, which is essential since they may lack this at home (Hammond, 2015). When students feel emotionally safe, they are more likely to engage, behave positively, remember information, and perform other executive functions like " working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and planning" (Tucker-Drob & Grotzinger, 2024), which is essential for their academic success and personal growth.

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