The balanced reading teacher of children entering preschool, kindergarten, and in some cases, first grade should teach phonemic awareness as a "priority goal". Phonemic awareness instruction should involve children in playful and engaging activities as well as stimulate curiosity and experimentation with language. Instruction should focus on specific objectives and include social interaction as a key component. Phonemic awareness should be taught as part of regular daily instruction in reading and writing.

Phonemic awareness tasks to be taught during instruction:

- Phoneme isolation

- Phoneme identity

- Phoneme categorization

- Phoneme blending

- Phoneme segmentation

- Phoneme deletion

- Rhyming activities

- Syllable unit activities

The game Which One Doesn’t Belong? can help students learn to discriminate sounds in words. To play it with syllables, pick out sets of picture cards (4 cards in a set). Make sure that three of your picture cards have the same number of syllables (2 syllables- li-on, cook-ie, dough-nut) and that one of them is different (1 syllable- sun). Lay all four cards out in a horizontal line on your work space. Say each picture card together, emphasizing the syllables in each word. It may even help to clap or stomp them together. See if your students can find the one picture card in the row that does not have the same number of syllables.

One of the most challenging ways to play with sound is manipulation. This is where young learners change a sound in the word to make another sound from either the beginning (cat to hat), middle (cat to cot) or end (cat to cap). For this game called, Change that Sound!, pick four picture cards for each round. Lay out one top card, which will serve as the starting word (such as hat). Provide three cards for the students to choose from as support. Say to the students, “This game is called, Change that Sound! With this game, you have to change one sound in the word and when you do, it will make a different word.” Practice a couple times together. Say, “If I took the /a/ out of hat and put an /o/ there instead, what word would I have?” This game is a complicated process because it requires students to separate each sound /h/-/a/-/t/, isolate and take out one sound: /a/, add the /o/ sound by separating the sounds /h/-/o/-/t/, and then blend the word back together again- hot.

To prepare this activity, print picture cards for two letters. For a student who is not completely solid in letter sounds, pick two letters that are very different sounding and felt differently in the mouth. Letter sounds that are made in a similar place in the mouth (such as B and P) may be confusing to young learners. Also cut yarn into 4 equal pieces for our tic-tac-toe board. To create a game board, use painter’s tape on the carpet; a dry erase board with a tic-tac-toe board; or even use paper and pencil. Before playing the game, have the student say the words represented by the picture cards and sort them by beginning sound. This will ensure that the student understands what each picture represents and what sound it starts with. The last step for preparation to play the game is to divide up the cards (one player taking the pictures that represent one letter sound and the other player taking the other set). We set up our tic tac toe board with yarn.

The strategy of Letter Sounds Tic-Tac-Toe works exactly as original Tic-Tac-Toe. Instead of using X’s and O’s, use the picture cards (with each player using a set of picture cards). To reinforce the beginning letter sounds, play so that each player has to name the picture when placing picture cards on the grid.  The game is highly effective in listening for and identifying beginning sounds because in order to use the strategy of the game (getting three in a row and blocking the other player), each player has to rename objects and listen for beginning sounds again.

Approaches to teaching systematic phonics:

- Analytic phonics

- Synthetic phonics

- Embedded phonics

The phonics approach is a skill-based approach in which careful and systematic attention is paid to teaching the alphabetic system, the letter-sound correspondences. Children need to be able to recognize an unknown word they come across while reading. Phonics provides them with the ability to break down a word into its component sounds in order to decode it. Phonic activities must stress transfer, because the only phonics knowledge that matters is what children actually do with that knowledge when they are reading and writing. Children who engage in a variety of phonics activities and in daily reading and writing ultimately become better readers and writers.

Provide each student with the target vowel sticks. For students just learning short vowels, begin with two vowel sticks. Start with dissimilar sounding vowel sounds first. For example, avoid beginning with /i/ and /e/ vowels since they sound similar. As the students become more proficient, add more vowel sticks to this activity. Tell the students that you will be saying a vowel sound and their job is to hold up the correct stick. Teacher: “You have the ‘a’ and ‘o’ vowel sticks. Remember that ‘a’ makes the /a/ sound like in the word ‘apple’ and ‘o’ makes the /o/ sound like in the word ‘octopus’. I’m going to say a sound and I want you to hold up the stick of the sound I say. Ready? /a/” Students: Hold up the ‘a’ vowel stick. As a variation of this activity, provide the students with words containing the short vowel sound and have them hold up the correct vowel. For example, when given the word “cat”, the students will hold up the ‘a’ vowel stick.

Using a thick marker, write one of the following initial consonant blends on the inside lip of each paper cup: BL-SM-PR-TR. Next, tape the cups to the floor so they are touching, and visible when viewed from a standing position by you and the student. On chart paper or a pad, create a beginning letter consonant blends chart. Write the blends as you did on the cups across the top of the paper. These blends form the headings for the columns of your chart. Underneath them, you'll list the words the student brainstorms, in the appropriate individual column. Now it is time to toss! To start the game, take turns with the student tossing a chip into the cup of your choice. When the chip lands in a cup, the player must come up with a word that starts with its beginning blend. For example, if the student's chip lands in the BL- cup, he or she needs to dream up a word with that beginning, such as “blue” or “black”. Each time someone comes up with a word, let the student (with your assistance) record it on the letter blend chart. How many words did you come up with for each blend? Ask the student to tally the results! Can he or she come up with other beginning blends to use for a future round? Is the student ready to tackle the game with ending blends instead? Get feedback from the student. When the student is ready, get out those chips and keep tossing!

Use the cups to spell CVC words. Write the ending word family with the same color to help students remember the word family.  On the other side on the "n" cup, I have other letters such as "t" and "p".  Students can turn the cups around and build other words. Students can stack the cups on top as they build more words. This allows students to visualize how tall they can build their word tower. Students continue making new words and recording them on a recording sheet or in a word book. Have the students use the cups as manipulatives to practice blending the sounds together to make words. Students can push one cup forward at a time to blend the sounds.

Ex:  "m" "a" "t" = mat  

Strategies that contribute to fluency in reading:

- Automaticity

- Prediction

- Flexibility

- Self-monitoring

Repeated and monitored oral reading improves reading fluency and overall reading achievement. Students should read and reread text out loud to the teacher, to peers, or at home until a certain level of fluency is reached. Four rereadings are sufficient for most students. Students should also use audiotapes, tutors, and peer guidance to practice reading out loud with instructive feedback. Teachers can help their students become fluent through modeling fluent reading and having students reread text on their own.

Approaches for students to practice reading fluently:

- Repeated reading

- Choral reading

- Tape-assisted reading

- Computer-assisted instruction

- Partner reading

- Readers' Theatre Workshop

- Echo reading

- Neurological impress

Place the fluency cards in a gift bag and let the students select one.  Use that style for rereading big books, charts, poems, etc.  It is important to reread the same selection three or four times.  With these cards, it will be exciting to “change voices” and do repeated readings. Students can also use these when they do buddy reading. Place a mirror in your classroom library so students can look at themselves as they reread.

Fluency Cards include: 

Shadow Reading - The teacher reads a line and then students repeat.

Choral Reading - The students read together.

Take a Turn - Divide children into groups and each section reads a different line. For example, let boys and girls alternate reading lines.

Emotions - Read a text with different emotions, such as happy, sad, angry, sleepy, etc. Which one fits the text best?

Popcorn - Whenever the teacher yells, “Popcorn,” the students must pick up reading. This keeps children focused and attentive. Students can also say “popcorn” when partner reading.

King and Queen - Put a pretend crown on your head and read with a “royal” tone.

Teacher Style - Children pretend they are the teacher as they point and read.

Have students practice independent reading with the whisper readers. A whisper reader is like a little “phone” kids can whisper read into and hear their words amplified in their ears. It is a great way to build fluency and is lots of fun to use! Re-reading text helps students build fluency skills and a whisper reader makes re-reading a lot more fun!

Vocabulary lessons should focus on learning new words and activities should be provided to support and reinforce the acquisition of new vocabulary words. Multiple strategies/activities should be taught to teach and reinforce new words. Teachers must be flexible and vary the type of activities that children use to learn new words. The activities must also be fun and engaging for students.The word wall should also be used to reinforce new words. New words should also be grouped by theme in order to help student associate new words to other words with which they are familiar. Graphic organizers should be used to help children visualize and remember the words. Most importantly, vocabulary words should not be taught in isolation. Words should be chosen from class readings and activities.

Shared Read - The class engages in reading a book together, usually an enlarged big book for the primary grades.

Guided Reading - The teacher works with a small group of students who are on approximately the same level of reading and have similar needs. The group works with books that have been selected by the teacher to match the group's reading level. The group reads the book out loud and the teacher works with each member to support basic reading strategies. Specific skills and strategies are taught in a supportive session.

Independent Reading - Children read books independently that have been chosen by the teacher, or that they have chosen from a range of materials on their own level. The teacher carefully selects a range of books that the students can read based on current reading level.

A vocabulary thinking map used after reading the book Pete the Cat.

This is can be used for any vocabulary from any story the class may be reading. The teacher can go through the book and pick out 3 words that the students may not know. Then come up with a definition and a picture.  Another way to use this is by using post its. Divide your students up and have them draw a picture of what the word means. Stick them in the draw it square. 

Semantic maps can be especially beneficial for struggling students. Pick a word you don’t know from a text you are reading and mark the word. Place the word you don’t know in the center of the map. Define the word, research the root and origin for the word, list synonyms and antonyms, draw a picture of the word, and use the word in a sentence to show it's meaning.

Have the class go to the Tired Words Wall to choose a synonym for an overused word. The students pull the synonym they like from the pocket, take it back to their seat to make sure they spell the word correctly (possibly add it to their personal dictionary), and return it to the wall when they’re finished.

Monitoring Comprehension - A reader knows whether he is reading correctly and applies strategies to help comprehend what has been read.

Using Graphic and Semantic Organizers - Visual diagrams the student develops that portray the relationships among concepts and help readers organize, classify, and structure information from a text.

Generating Student Questions - The reader develops different types of questions during reading that will help the student monitor comprehension and read for meaning.

Recognizing Story Structure - The reader recognizes the story elements while reading: setting, characters, plot, theme, and style. This helps the reader comprehend the text and anticipate what is coming next.

Summarizing - The reader is asked to restate what the author has said in a very concise format.

Sequences of Events - The reader orders the events of the text in a logical order, usually chronologically.

Identifying Main Idea - The reader identifies the primary topic or idea that the text is about; often used in informational text and writing.

Using Context Clues - The reader infers the meaning of a word using the context of the sentence or the passage. The user can use semantic clues, syntactic clues, or phonological clues.

Comparing and Contrasting - The reader shows how things are alike and how things are different.

Drawing Conclusions - The reader synthesizes all the information that was read into a conclusion that the author intended the reader to see.

These question stems are great for helping students generate discussion questions for Literature Circles.

The story map consists of flaps for the setting, characters, plot, theme, problem, and resolution. Students paste each flap onto the page and write the appropriate information underneath. Students can then draw a picture depicting the content written for each aspect of the story structure.

A compare and contrast chart for a unit on Gingerbread Man books. After reading six Gingerbread Man themed stories, the class identified things that were alike and different between the stories through studying the story elements of characters, repeated phrase, and ending.

Five Basic Principles of Readers' Workshop:

1) Time: Students need time to both look through books and also read independently. As the year goes on, the teacher can gradually increase the amount of independent reading time. 

2) Choice: Students must have the opportunity to choose the books they want to read. As the year progresses, the students will begin to choose books that appeal to them and also challenge them.

3) Response: Students need to respond to the literature they are reading. This can be done through response journals, class discussions, literature circles, or projects.

4) Community: Students need to feel that they are part of a classroom community. Each student is both a learner and a teacher. 

5) Structure: It is important that Readers' Workshop is a highly structured activity. Students need to understand the value of silent reading and the importance of sharing and listening during discussions. 

Structure of Readers' Workshop:

- Introduction - Read Aloud/Language Experience Story (10 minutes)

- Mini-lesson (10-12 minutes)

- Independent Reading (20-25 minutes)

- Student Sharing (10-15 minutes)

Learning Centers

Learning centers are excellent for accommodating the various needs of students. Learning centers are designed areas of the classroom where students must accomplish meaningful tasks specified by objectives. Each learning center should be designed so that the tasks revolve around a specific theme, skill, or discipline. Tasks should focus on meaningful literacy objectives and not just include busy work to keep children quiet and on task. Learning objectives should maximize children's opportunities to engage in the meaningful language experiences that they are engaged in. The activities should be structured and require the use of skills and strategies that have already been taught so that the children can work independently. The children should be able to complete the tasks within the specified time period, usually 15 minutes.

Establishing literacy learning centers is essential to enable children to work responsibly, independently, and in small groups, thereby freeing up the teacher to teach guided reading effectively. Implementing learning centers also enables the teacher to provide one-on-one instruction to individual struggling readers, including English language learners and other special needs students.

Frequently Used Literacy Learning Centers:

- ABC's and Make Words (Word Play Center)

- Independent Reading Center

- Listening/Read-Aloud Center

- Computer Center

- Writing Center

- Poetry Center

- Word Meaning Games

- Puppet Players' Stage

- Dramatic Play Center

At the beginning of the school year, the teacher must explain to the class the procedures involved during readers' workshop. To help maintain structure and order during readers' workshop, the teacher and the class should develop specific promises to uphold during this class activity. Have the students sign the bottom of the readers' workshop contract to indicate their understanding of the promises outlined in the contract. Place the contract on the wall where all students can see and refer back to it during readers' workshop sessions.

Not all students learn the same way, and some need to feel the words to learn them. Add some fine sand into a pencil box and give them an un-sharpened pencil. They can trace the sight words in the sand! And the pencil box keeps the sand neat and tidy!

Students dig out capital letters from the rice to match to the lower case letter. Students must say each letter as they take it out of the sand and place it next to the corresponding lower case letter. This allows for students to practice using the alphabetic principle, associating letters with its appropriate phoneme or sound.

Stages of the Writing Process:

- Prewriting

- Drafting

- Revising

- Editing

- Postwriting

Each stage builds on the next, but teachers should not interpret the stages as though the whole class can be working on one stage in unison. The process does not work that way, it is not a smooth, step-by-step linear process. Rather, writing is a process of dialogue between the writer and the emerging text. It is a process of focusing on what to write, pulling back to ask questions, and then commencing to write again. The writer is always asking, "What am I trying to say?", "How does this sound?", and "Where am I going with this?". These are the same questions that teachers should be asking their students during writing conferences so that the children internalize these questions and actually start questioning themselves as they write. Teacher-student conferences are at the heart of the writing process, and it is through them that students learn the effective strategies needed to interact with their own text.

The Writing Workshop

The writing workshop is a workshop type of environment created in the classroom where children have the opportunity to engage in enjoyable writing and reading activities. The writing workshop is student-centered in the sense that each student's development and expression of an idea is the primary goal of this phase of literacy. It demands participation of all involved because it exists to serve each student's needs. A literate environment is established where students are writing and reading; it is the process that is emphasized, not the skills learned in doing it. Students learn that skills help them become better at the process, and that the curriculum does not revolve around a subset of isolated skills to be mastered.

The 4 Steps of a Writing Workshop

- Introduction (5 minutes)

- Mini-lesson (10 minutes)

- Independent writing and conferring (30 minutes)

- Wrap-up and sharing of personal experiences (5 minutes)

This classroom chart is a great way to keep track of where each student is in the writing process. Students move their class number clothespin down the pencil as they complete each stage of the writing process. When the students are finished with all stages, they can free write.

The writing goals poster is a great reminder for the teacher and helps her to coach students on the specific areas that they need to work on. When reading their story together, the teacher can see if each student is meeting his or her goal. The students are using it as well to remind themselves of their focus. As the teacher notices another area a student needs to work on, she asks the student to move his or her name to that area.

A chart like this should be completed with the class at the beginning of the school year in order to teach students the writing workshop procdeure. The chart should be placed in a visible part of the classroom where students can refer to it during the writing workshop. This will help students to remember what tasks they should be completing and will help them to stay focused.

Technologies that Support Literacy:

- Electronic books

- Podcasts

- Electronic talking books

- Word processing

- Multimedia composing

- Software programs to reinforce reading/writing skills

- Digital photography and video production

- Blogs, wikis and padlets

- SmartBoard

- Streaming video

- iPad/Tablets

- Internet-based activities

Activities to Help Integrate Technology into Literacy Instruction:

- Participate in Internet projects

- Go on virtual field trips

- Publish student work

- Access primary sources

- Access online libraries and databases

- iPad/Tablet game apps that reinforce reading/writing skills

Technology is greatly affecting the way we read and write in our society, which thereby impacts the definition of literacy. Educators need to make an effort to connect literacy instruction in the classroom to different technologies that support authentic reading and writing. The classroom must be a place where students learn about the new literacies to become knowledgeable citizens in this global world.

Children's literature contributes to language growth and development. When children are exposed to rich language through literature, it shapes their thought processes and cognitive development. Through literature, children encounter a greater variety of new words and become familiar with the syntax of complex sentences. Their vocabulary becomes richer and their ability to express themselves improves. The language of literature differs from the language of conversation; often, literary language is lyrical, poetic, and uses many different techniques to convey a message.

Using literature in the classroom helps students become better writers. The variety of narrative structures children see in quality literature helps them become better writers by adding to the resources they can call on. Literature can cause a reader to think about not only what is said but how it is said. This will help children think about not only what to write but how it should be written. They will mimic many of the styles that they encounter while reading and try to write like a favorite author, trying out new styles. 

One of the major reasons literature should be used in the classroom is the emotional appeal of a good story. Literature deals with the whole range of human emotions and enables the reader to empathize with characters they never would relate to if not through reading. This type of emotional connection is such an important part of human growth and development; children need to develop empathy, sympathy, and relate to others from other cultures, races, and ways of life. The human experience is revealed and explored in good literature in a way that textbooks, videos, and films will never be able to replicate. Good literature can touch the soul and make you laugh and cry.

Types of Children's Literature:

- Award-Winning Literature (Caldecott Medal and Newbery Medal Books)

- Fiction (Narrative Text)

Including Fantasy, Science Fiction, Realistic Fiction, and Historical Fiction

- Nonfiction (Expository Text)

- Picture Books

- Poetry

- Folklore

- Biographies

- Multicultural Literature

- Electronic Talking Books

Kerproof Tell a Story

In this fantastic sticker storytelling app, the characters are dinosaurs and the settings are a variety of scenes in dinosaur times. For each story frame, it’s simple to drag and drop new characters and accessories, rocks, spiders, or trees. Easily change the dinosaur’s expression, pose or size with just a touch. And, you get to record the sounds (words) that each character says. Finally, type the section of the story to accompany your characters and setting. If you want, you can easily make the text a speech bubble! When you’re done with that story frame, you’ll continue adding more until the story is done. You can create up to a 30 page story.

This website allows students to work with authors, editors, and illustrators in workshops designed to help them develop their writing. There are different features to explore and many different types of writing activities that students can explore.

The World Wide School

http://www.worldwideschool.org/

The World Wide School is an e-library that provides free access to the full text of a wide variety of books. This is a complete library containing many different texts from fairy tales and poetry to mathematical dissertations and reference material. It also includes texts from The Project Gutenberg.