Pulses are the dried edible seeds of certain plants in the legume family. ( Leguminosae of Fabaceae). The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) recognizes 11 types of pulses grown worldwide. Beans, lentils, chickpeas and split peas are the most common types of pulses. Since 1959, the UN has dedicated special years and observances to promote international awareness and action on various topics.

IMPORTANCE OF THIS FOOD CROP:

- high nutritional value. Pulses are very high in protein and fibre, and are low in fat. 
 
 - Pulses are also nitrogen-fixing crops that improve the environmental sustainability of annual cropping systems. 

The cultivated lentil Lens culinaris was derived from its wild subspecies L. culinaris subsp. orientalis, although other species may also have contributed some genes, according to Jonathan Sauer (Historical Geography of Crop Plants, 2017.) Unlike their wild ancestors, domesticated lentil crops have indehiscent pods and nondormant seeds. 

Lentils are the oldest pulse crop known, and among the earliest crops domesticated in the Old World, having been found as carbonized remains alongside human habitations dating to 11,000 BC in Greece.^[2] The lentil is indigenous to Western and Central Asia.

In early times, peas - Pisum sativum  - were grown mostly for their dry seeds. From plants growing wild in the Mediterranean basin, constant selection since the Neolithic dawn of agriculture improved their yield. In the early 3rd century BC Theophrastus mentions peas among the pulses that are sown late in the winter because of their tenderness.  In the first century AD, Columella mentions them in De re rustica, when Roman legionaries still gathered wild peas from the sandy soils of Numidia and Judea to supplement their rations. In the Middle Ages, field peas are constantly mentioned, as they were the staple that kept famine at bay, as Charles the Good, count of Flanders, noted explicitly in 1124. 

DOMESTICATION OF PULSES
On the basis of an examination and evaluation of archeological remains and  an identification of the wild progenitors and delimitation of their geographic distribution, it was concluded that pea (Pisum sativum) and lentil should be regarded as founder crops of Old World Neolithic agriculture. Most probably they were domesticated, in the Near East, simultaneously with wheats and barley (certainly not later than the sixth millennium B.C.). Bitter vetch shows a similar mode of origin. The evidence on the broad bean and the chickpea is much more fragmentary and the wild progenitors of these legumes are yet not satisfactorily identified. But also these two pulses emerge as important food elements in Bronze Age cultures of the Near East and Europe.

FAO: is the Food and Agriculture Organization is a specialized agency of the UN that leads internatinal efforts to defeat hunger. The goal is achieve food security for al land make sure that people have regular access to enough quality food to lead active healthy lives.
 The specific objectives of the Year of the pulse

 

Wild bean seeds in the seedbank of the botanic Garden Meise Belgium
Our Seed Bank also contains an important collection of wild beans and bean type plants (Fabaceae). The genera Phaseolus and Vigna are particularly well represented. They include protein-producing plants that play an important nutritional role – for example, the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), the runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus), the black-eyed pea (Vigna unguiculata), and the mung bean (Vigna radiata).
The aim of the collection is the long-term preservation of the genetic variability of this group – essential to secure the future of these important food crops. These seeds are also stored at -20 °C. A collection such as this one is an important source of genetic material for scientific research and breeding. The beans are distributed to breeders to enable new varieties. for example beans that are more resistant to global climate warming.

THE STORY OF THE COWPEA
 The story of cowpea (black-eyed peas) is a fascinating example of how science can solve the world's biggest problems–even more fascinating is the story of the scientist behind the research. B.B. Singh wrote this book to serve as an accessible summary of cowpea breeding, management, and use. He has devoted his life's work to solving the “protein gap” of the Green Revolution in which the emphasis on corn and wheat neglected the protein-rich legumes vital to plant-based nutrition. Today, under his careful tending, cowpea truly has become the food legume of the century. From genetics to recipes, he gives a full account of how cowpea belongs in our global agriculture and in every diet. Along the way, he shares his inspiring story.

RECIPE:
Kidney bean curry

Ingredients

Method

Reference:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentil

https://www.facebook.com/lovepulses

https://pulses.org/global

www.fao.org/pulses-2016/about/en/food and agriculture organization

> Database Phaseolinae : seedbank of the Botanical Garden Meise Belgium

https://www.plantentuinmeise.be/nl/overig/Zadenbank/

db.plantentuinmeise.be/RESEARCH/COLLECTIONS/LIVING/PHASEOLUS/index.html

www.agtfoods.com/about-pulses/history-of-pulses.html

The story of the cowpea:
https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/books/tocs/acsesspublicati/cowpeathefoodle

Nutritional value of walnuts
Walnuts not only do they taste great but they are also a rich source of heart-healthy monounsaturated fats and an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which have anti-inflammatory properties. Walnuts are also rich in antioxidants, such as manganese and copper. In addition, many other minerals are provided by walnuts in valuable amounts, such as calcium, chromium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, vanadium and zinc.

Plant species they originate from

Walnut trees, genus Juglans,
comprise the largest and most widely distributed of the eight genera in the walnut family Juglandaceae. The two most common major species of walnuts are grown for their seeds are the English walnut and the black walnut
The English walnut (scientific name: Juglans regia) have a milder taste and broader appeal. They also have thinner, easier-to-crack shells. Black Walnuts (scientific name :Juglans nigra) on the other hand have a bolder, earthier flavor. Their shells are thick, tough to crack, and will likely stain your hands.Black walnut trees are not really cultivated on the same scale of English walnuts. They mostly grow wild across central and eastern parts of America.Both species have similar cultivation requirements and are widely grown in temperate zones.

History of Walnuts

The Common Walnut - Juglans regia, is a slow growing, medium to large tree native to a wide belt of Asia stretching from the Balkans to China. The largest forests are found in the Jalal-Abad province of Kyrgyzstan at altitudes of 1000-2000 meters. The first historical account of walnut cultivation dates back to Babylon (now Iraq) circa 2000 B.C. However, archaeological excavation of Neolithic sites in southwest France has uncovered roasted walnut shells, indicating walnuts were being eaten in Europe at least 8000 years ago. 

The history of walnut in Europe is a matter of debate, however. In a study that took place in 2017, it estimated the genetic diversity and structure of 91 Eurasian walnut populations using 14 neutral microsatellites. By integrating fossil pollen, cultural, and historical data with population genetics, and approximate Bayesian analysis, they reconstructed the demographic history of walnut and its routes of dispersal across Europe.The genetic data confirmed the presence of walnut in glacial refugia in the Balkans and western Europe. They conclude that human-mediated admixture between Anatolian and Balkan walnut germplasm started in the Early Bronze Age, and between western Europe and the Balkans in eastern Europe during the Roman Empire. The actual distribution of walnut in Europe resulted from the combined effects of expansion/contraction from multiple refugia after the Last Glacial Maximum and its human exploitation over the last 5,000 years.

Domestication of Walnuts

A team of US and European researchers that undertook genetic evaluation of walnut species at 39 sites across Asia, from near Lake Van in Turkey to Taishan Mountain in northeastern China, near the city of Tai’an.They discovered that traders carried walnuts east and west through Turkey, Iran and the Trans-Caucasus to Central Asia. It is likely they saved walnuts from the best trees, selecting those with the characteristics to produce high-quality nuts and possibly wood, and purposely planted them as long-term “crop investments.” This puts walnuts among the first known examples of planned afforestations.


References

Family-Rosaceae

Subclass- Rosidae

Sub-division -Magnoliophytina (Angiospermae)

Division - Espermatophyta

Coming from Central Asia, the Caucasus and N Iran; cultivated and subspecies in Europe

Characteristics of the plant: It is a tree of medium size (3 to 6 meters), oblong and deciduous leaves, superficial and fasciculate root system, with tortuous trunk and rounded crown. It is a melífera tree, with white or pink flowers.

Characteristics of the fruit: good caliber and rounded shape. The epidermis is a lemon-yellow color with some whitish pubescence.
The pulp is yellowish, consistent, slightly sweet, acid and somewhat astringent. It is fragrant when well matured. Raw have a sour taste and are indigestible.

Most evidence indicates that V. vinifera was domesticated in  southwest Asia between ~6000–8000 years ago, from its wild ancestor V. vinifera spp. sylvestris, sometimes referred to as V. sylvestris. V. sylvestris, while quite rare in some locations, currently ranges between the Atlantic coast of Europe and the Himalayas. A second possible center of domestication is in Italy and the western Mediterranean, but so far the evidence for that is not conclusive. DNA studies suggest that one reason for the lack of clarity is the frequent occurrence in the past of purposeful or accidental cross-breeding of domestic and wild grapes.

The main difference between wild and domestic forms of grape is the wild form's ability to cross-pollinate: wild V. vinifera can self-pollinate, while domestic forms cannot, which allows farmers to control a plant's genetic characteristics. The domestication process increased the size of bunches and berries, and the berry's sugar content as well. The end result was greater yields, more regular production, and better fermentation. Other elements, such as larger flowers and a wide range of berry colors—particularly white grapes—are believed to have been bred into the grape later in the Mediterranean region.

None of these characteristics are identifiable archaeologically, of course: for that, we must rely on changes in grape seed ("pips") size and shape and genetics. In general, wild grapes bear roundish pips with short stalks, while domestic varieties are more elongated, with long stalks. Researchers believe the change results from the fact that larger grapes have larger, more elongated pips. Some scholars suggest that when pip shape varies within a single context, that probably indicates viticulture in process. However, in general, using shape, size, and form is only successful if the seeds were not deformed by carbonization, water-logging, or mineralization. All of those processes are what allows grape pits to survive in archaeological contexts. Some computer visualization techniques have been used to examine pip shape, techniques which hold promise to resolve this issue.

Sources:
https://www.thoughtco.com/origins-of-the-domesticated-grape-169378
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitis_vinifera

photo from www.196flavours.com

The wild apples are called crabapples, "crabbe" meaning bitter or sharp-tasting, which is representative of the taste of those wild apples but very far from our sweet and big apples.

Selected traits

And many other characteristics depending on the culture, pests, trends and other parameters. 

Varieties
Unlike crabapples, domesticated apples are self-incompatible, meaning that the seeds from a fruit won't produce a tree resembling the parent tree. The propagation is then made by grafting rootstocks.

The apple production worldwide is limited to a few dozen cultivars but there are in fact thousands of domestic apple varieties. New cultivars are produced now and then. Here, a list of known cultivars (most complete I found)

Uses
They can be consumed in many different ways :

Here, a list of apple dishes. 

Benefits
I think we've all heard the saying "One apple a day keeps the doctor away". Indeed, apples are beneficial in many different ways

They contain a lot of fibers that help digestion and prevents stomach disorders. The pectin they contain acts as a probiotic, helping the bacteria in our intestine and increasing nutrient uptake as well as eliminating harmful bacteria and toxins.

They seem to have an anticancer potential (ongoing research)

They contain iron, helping to relieve symptoms of anemia and generally help blood circulation in the body. They also help control diabetes and lowering levels of bad cholesterol.

They help reduce the risk of strokes and improve neurological health as well as prevents dementia.

They contain many vitamins and nutrients that are involved in many processes in the body and the consumption of apples seem to have many benefits.

There are many other benefits that are listed here and here.

Beat the butter and sugar in a mixer.Add the eggs, one at a time.Wait for each egg to be completely incorporated into the mixture before adding the next one. Then add the milk. Add the remaining ingredients and gently fold into mixture with a spatula.Bake for an hour.While the cake is baking, add all of the ingredients for the syrup to a small saucepan. Bring to a boil and immediately remove from heat and set aside to cool.When cake is ready, remove from oven and pour cold syrup over it.

 - We spontaneously chose popular and nutrient-rich plants in our regions.
 - except quinces and apples, the crops come from different families.
 - The ancestors mainly descend from Asia and the Mediterranean area.
 - They were domesticated a long time ago. The correct year is not always known. At least thousands of years. 

- During the evolution of domestication there have probably been crosses between wild and domestic species. As a result, there remains uncertainty about the "real" ancestors.
 - The best qualities of the crops were probably selected throughout the evolution.
 - The crops described are all very nutritious
 - They can be prepared in different ways

Challenges:
A lot of research is still needed. Although much is already known about the origins of the wild ancestors, much remains unclear about the evolution of the plants. Research is therefore needed about the DNA and
morphology of the different species.
It is important to preserve seeds from wild species so that more breeding can be done for the future. So we need more research about possibilities of breeding crops that are more resistant to global warming, that can be grown in a sustainable way and that can ensure food security for the growing world population.