Since 1819, the founding of modernized Singapore by the British has led to intensive agricultural practices. This included the felling of the primary rainforest in exchange for cash crops, such as Gambir, a type of leaf. Gambir was subsequently used in production of cutch, a material used in tanning leather, nutmeg, and pepper. This process was particularly ecologically damaging as it required a large amount of firewood from trees to boil the leaves. As a result, Singapore had lost 93% of the rainforest by the 1880s, erasing much biodiversity originally thriving in the forests.

According to research, there were originally 2,053 species of vascular plants that were native to Singapore. Some 1,454 species are still surviving. 376 species of birds, 282 species of butterflies, 102 species of reptiles, 58 species of mammals and 27 species of

amphibians, have remained in Singapore. Marine Life has also be found to be rich in Singapore among coastal areas. Currently, there are 200 species of hard corals, 111 species of reef fish and 11 species of sea grasses.

Singapore is one of the most densely populated countries globally, with a gross domestic product of over S$243 billion recorded in 2007 (www.singstat.gov.sg). This indicates high levels of economic activities, whereby limited land, increasing population, and industrialisation has contributed to the challenges of conserving biodiversity in Singapore.

The key characteristics of mangrove forests includes mangrove trees thriving in salty waters, tidal flats, and the ability of the mangrove trees to absorb carbon of up to the annual emissions of 90,000 cars. The mangrove trees are also a sanctuary for marine life, and act as a natural buffer against rising sea levels.

Mangrove forests hold a large amount of carbon, which is important in slowing climate change. These unique forests also have roots protruding from the water - providing our marine life with ample cover and plausible homes. Additionally, in the event of evolving weather changes such as storm surges, these mangrove forests will act as the first line of defense, especially for people living in coastal areas.

How much biodiversity has Singapore lost since 1819? 

By 1880s, only 7% of original forest remained. Over 90% of its original cover is lost.  

How much biodiversity remains in Singapore?  

95% of original forest have been cleared. Now mainly secondary forest. Animal extinction rate of 37% (Chisholm et al., 2023).

Singapore has a rich variety of ecosystems, such as coral reefs, soft substrate and open seas, mangroves, mudflats, seagrass beds, rocky and sandy shores, lowland dipterocarp forests, coastal forests, freshwater swamp forests, secondary forest regrowth, wet and dry grasslands, forest streams, and reservoirs (Chan et al., 2010). She still hosts 50,000 – 100,000 species of animals, plants and fungi, so there will be no shortage of species to feature any time soon (BOS, n.d.). Researchers painstakingly assembled a comprehensive database of records, comprising more than 50,600 observations of over 3,060 species from 10 major animal and plant groups (Qing, 2024).

Primary challenges of conservation depend on the maintenance of the habitats, which is closely related to land use and environmental quality. A tripartite responsibility between the Public, Private and People sectors, being dependant on policies from many government agencies, participation from non-government organisations and support from private organisations (Chan et al., 2010).

Mangrove or ‘crooked’ trees are salt water tolerant forest ecosystem, found along coastal regions. The typical zonation of mangrove are mudflat, pioneer mangrove zone, back mangrove zone, rainforest. They come in varying sizes from small shrubs to tress that stand 40m above the water (Feller, 2024). Their leaves have small glands to excrete salt, and waxy leaves to prevent water loss. They help reduce carbon dioxide emissions by acting as “carbon sinks” (Ahmad, 2017).

The mangroves are nature-based solutions to climate change, such as carbon sequestration, reduce erosion, protection from extreme weather (storm surges). They helps with water filtration, climate regulation, coastal protection and also supports a diverse ecosystem as feeding grounds for thousands of species of marine life, insects, reptiles and animals (Feller, 2024).

Video reflection

1. Sungei Buloh wetland reserve, mudflats, mangrove forest 4%, >60 islands around sg, Pulau Ubin (mangrove boardwalk), rainforest, coastal wetlands. (Saltwater crocodiles, smooth-coated otters, wild boars, Malayan colugo, mudskipper, fiddler crab, monitor lizard, white-bellied sea eagle, changeable hawk-eagle, wild dogs, thunder pangolin)

2. Having diverse types of habitats helps support the diversity of different species of plants and animals. It also help balance the ecosystem like acting as carbon sinks, help prevent coastal erosion and filters the water.