3MBIO2 de Gala & Park PlantArea Palawan by D Collin

[2] Palawan: "The Last Ecological Frontier"

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 10:14:12 UTC

With an area of 14, 650 km², Palawan Island is the largest province in the Philippines that comprise of around 1,780 islands and islets. Its is located in the MIMAROPA region, lying between the northwest margin of Sulu and and South China Sea. It has earned the name of "The Last Ecological Frontier of the Philippines" with its naturally resources-rich environment, white beaches, clear water, and biodiversity of flora and fauna species. The island is also a globally known tourist spot, particularly the places of El Nido, Puerto Princesa, Coron, and San Vicente.

To be specific, Palawan Island truly has a rich ecological heritage such that its entire economy is about 80% of agriculture. The vast stretch of forests in the island covers about 45% of its total land area. Moreover, its rich ecosystem shelters various species of birds, mammals, and plants. Of the 279 bird species found in the island, 27 are endemic to the country such as the Palawan hornbill and Palawan peacock pheasant. On the other hand, 33% of 60 mammalian species are known to be endemic to the Philippines. These species include the Palawan bearcat, Palawan leopard cat and Palawan flying squirrel. Additionally, 24 endemic reptilian species can be also be found in the island including the 7-ft-long Palawan monitor lizard.

References:

Palawan Island. (2021). Palawan. Retrieved from https://www.palawanisland.org/
Rainforest Trust. (2021). Saving Palawan’s Endemic Wildlife. Retrieved from https://www.rainforesttrust.org/projects/saving-palawans-endemic-wildlife/

Image: Coron, Palawan

[1] Plants and Life on Earth

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 10:22:40 UTC

Earth has existed for a very long time. It has been through so many changes and witnessed multiple evolutionary periods. In fact, the organisms, even the material things that exist currently, are far from what had existed billions or millions of years ago. Earth supports a wide array of life such that the planet is biodiverse due to its existing ecosystems and inhabitants. Of course, this biodiversity resulted from the billions of years of evolution. According to researchers, there are about 8.7 million species that exist, and with only 1.2 million species identified. Biodiversity supports life and provides the living the necessities for survival. As humans, our diversity has led to the formation and adaptation of different cultures, traditions, beliefs, and religion among many others. Biodiversity in the environment helped us develop into what we are as of the moment. It helped us understand how we are so different, and yet similar to one another.

In line with this, plants play an important role in the ecosystem. Whereas plants are capable of making their own food, they still provide animals and humans their needs, primarily oxygen and food. Other benefits they provide comes with the forests providing shelter for animals in the wild. Plants can individually aid in controlling flood, drought, and air and water quality. Additionally, they are essential in the fields of agriculture, science and medicine, and industry. Without plants, a huge number of organisms would most likely cease to exist as most are are highly dependent on plants to sustain their life. Such the case, we should know and remember nature, preserve its beauty, and nurture its entirety.

References:
Usman, A. B., Abubakar, S., Alaku, C., & Nnadi, O. (2014). Plant: a Necessity of Life. International Letters of Natural Sciences Online, 20, 151-159. https://www.doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILNS.20.151

[4] Seed Bank

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 10:23:05 UTC

Seed Bank, in a literal sense, is a bank that stores seeds. Similar to an actual bank that serves to save money when the situation is easygoing and then withdraw money when needed, seed banks aim to save seeds to be used for the future. In a case that a catastrophic event occurs, such as nuclear war, extreme weather, or unpredictable disaster, all of which may cause extinction of some plant species, seed banks aim to preserve the genetic diversity of plant species. With this, like Noah's Ark, the robustness of the bank itself is very important so that it can withstand massive catastrophes and natural disasters that could hit Earth. Seed bank organizes and stores seeds by variety, so that they can be supplied to the farmers who want to cultivate them at any time. At the same time, seed banks conserve useful gene(s) of each varieties of plant that could be utilized to develop new varieties of plant, also preventing the extinction of its species. Seed vaults are important to revitalize basic research on plants. Since the seeds of many plants are stored, it is easy to secure seeds for research, and it also provides basic information of seeds such as germination conditions. To add, 40% of plant species are estimated to vulnerable or close to extinction, thus, it was the best move to establish a global seed vault where the future generation can also benefit from.

The largest seed vault that exists as of today is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault located in the north, beyond the Arctic Circle. It has the capacity to store 4.5 million variety of seeds, with each variety having about 500 seeds. The seed vault contains species of seeds from different countries and continents. The cold condition in the northern region, or the permafrost, ensures the long-term storage of the seed samples even without power.

Know more about the Arctic's Global Seed Vault by watching the youtube link and visiting their website
YT: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B95Pem9XW7k
WS: https://www.croptrust.org/our-work/svalbard-global-seed-vault/

References:
Gosling, R. (2020, December 2).

What is a seed bank, how does it work and why is it important?. Retrieved from https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/blog/2020/12/what-is-a-seed-bank/

Image: Svalbard Global, "Doomsday," Seed Vault

[3] Endemic and Indigenous Plant species of Palawan

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 12:46:45 UTC

Endemic species refers to species that are distributed only in a specific region, and are generally similar with indigenous species. On the other hand, indigenous species specifically refers to species that naturally grow in a certain habitat through natural processes without human intervention in a specific area or ecosystem.

As for the plants endemic to Palawan Island, the following 10 species could be found:
[1] Scaevola subalpina
A new species of genus Scaevola discovered in the Mount Mantalingahan Protected Landscape. Professor Malabrigo claimed that it is the only endemic species out of the four Scaevola species native in the country.

[2, 3, 4] Begonia taraw, Begonia hughesii, and Begonia tagbanua
The following species from genus Begonia was found in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park. The plants were discovered to be new and belong to a clade endemic to Palawan and Borneo.

[5] Pemphis acidula
Commonly known as "Kabantigi" trees. They are quite uncommon, but found along coastal rock areas, gravel, and sand. It is often low-lying, densely branched, with its flowers inconspicuously blooming. They are typically used as bonsai trees especially in the Asian region.

[6] Nepenthes palawanensis
A tropical pitcher plant found in Sultan Peak in Palawan. Species appearing closely related to N. Attenboroughii, with the former having pitchers larger than that of the N. Attenboroughii.

[7] Areca ipot Becc.
Having the common name of "Bungang-ipot," it is a small stocky tree that is found at low and medium altitudes of forests. It is listed as "vulnerable" due to habitat loss.

[8] Hoya diversifolia subsp. el-nidicus
The subspecies of genus Hoya is endemic to a number or islands in El Nido and Coron. It often grows on limestones and is used ornamentally.

[9] Cycas wadei
Endemic to both Palawan and Mindoro, however, it is considered to be "critically endangered" since 2010. It is often used for ornamental purposes and is over-collected, hence, its conservation status.

[10] Epithema madulidii
Species endemic to Coron that grow in pockets of limestone boulders. Typically used for ornamental purposes.

References:

El Nido Resorts Environment Department. (2012, January 9). "The Plants of El Nido, Palawan" by Ulysses Ferreras. https://www.slideshare.net/elnidoenvironment/the-plants-of-el-nido-by-ulysses-ferreras
Madulid, D. A. (2002). Flowering Plants. In A Pictorial Guide to the Noteworthy Plants of Palawan. https://pkp.pcsd.gov.ph/images/A%20Pictorial%20Guide%20to%20the%20Noteworthy%20Plants%20of%20Palawan.pdf
Manila Bulletin. (2020, September 26). New, ‘endangered’ PH endemic plant species discovered in Palawan forest. Retrieved from https://mb.com.ph/2020/09/26/new-endangered-ph-endemic-plant-species-discovered-in-palawan-forest/
Rainforest Trust. (2021). Saving Palawan’s Endemic Wildlife. Retrieved from https://www.rainforesttrust.org/projects/saving-palawans-endemic-wildlife/
Rubite, R. R., Hughes, M., Blanc, P., Chung, K., Yang, H., Kono, Y., Alejandro, G., Layola, L., Virata, A. G., & Peng, C. (2015). Three new species of Begonia endemic to the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Palawan. Botanical Studies, 56(19). https://www.doi.org/ 10.1186/s40529-015-0099-1
Travel Palawan. (2021). Flora of Palawan. Retrieved from https://www.travel-palawan.com/nature/flora/

Image: Nepenthes palawinensis

[6] What is a Seed?

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 12:48:49 UTC

A seed is the reproductive offspring of a plant that has the ability to give rise to new plants of its own species. Considering the thousands of plants known globally, seeds comes in a variety of forms. Some seeds may appear big or small, oval or pear-shaped, wrinkly or smooth, yellow or green, and many other characteristics. However, it is essentially what allows plants to multiply and spread in various places. A seed is composed of three parts specifically (1) the seed coat, (2) endosperm, (3) and embryo.

The seed coat is the outermost covering that is responsible for protecting the inner parts of a seed. The two parts of a seed coat are the testa and tegmen which are the thick outer layer and thin inner layer, respectively. Testa protects the seed from excess sunlight and water, while simultaneously preventing its water loss and entry of parasites.

Consequently, the endosperm contains the stored nutrients, in the forms starch, carbohydrates and proteins. It is responsible for providing the seed its nutrients in order to support the embryo in the process of germination. Viability of seeds are affected by this as seeds need continuous intake of nutrient until germination.

Lastly, the most important part of the seed, the embryo that is developed from the fertilization of the male and female organs in plants. Cells essential for the development of a mature embryo are present within the embryo. Moreover, it consists of the epicotyl, hypocotyl, radicle, and cotyledon. Whereas the epicotyl gives rise to the entire shoot system, hypocotyl gives rise to the primary root in seed germination. The latter acts to anchor the growing seed in the substrate. On the other hand, the radicle is the small embryonic root that protrudes first during germination. Meanwhile, attached to the radicle is the cotyledon that stores and provides nourishment for the other parts of the embryo. When growing a seedling, the cotyledon emerges as the first tiny and fleshy leaf.

Reference:

BYJU'S. (2021). Parts of a seed. Retrieved from
https://byjus.com/biology/parts-of-a-seed/

[10] Embryogenesis

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 12:50:43 UTC

In angiosperms, the zygote first undergo asymmetric cell division to form a pro-embryo, a structure in which several cells are elongated containing apical cells and basal cells. Polarity is established during this first asymmetric division. Plant embryo commonly develops from the apical cell containing most cytoplasm. At this stage, the apical cell is promoted to grow by auxin and have a round shape, which is the place to differentiate into embryos.

Here, cotyledon and hypocotyl are made and are classified into dicotyledonous plants and monocotyledonous plants according to the number of cotyledons. Monocot undergo through globular, scutellar and coleoptilar stages, and dicot undergoes globular, heart, torpedo and cotyledonary stages to create embryo.

Globular stage - apical cell area divided into 8 cell, globular, and triangular. Radial patterning occurs during this stage.

Haert stage - has rapid cell division in each side of embryo. The middle part of heart shape embryo will become shoot apical meristem when it develop. Rapidly growing side will farther become cotyledon, differentiate monocot and dicot.

Torpedo stage - undergo cell elongation

Maturation stage - embryo folds over and pack themselves inside the seed coverings to be in resting position, dormancy.

[11] Seed Germination

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 12:51:40 UTC

The life of a plant essentially begins at fertilization, when seeds are formed as the embryo, that will later give rise to the new species. When seeds leaves the parent plant, there is a possibility that the seeds might enter a state of dormancy. Nonetheless, when the seed is introduced to a suitable environment, germination and the rest of its supposed development would occur. Seed germination is the most crucial phase in the entire plant and development phase. Multiple factors affect germination of seed. Firstly, the ability to germinate is exhibited by a viable seed - a seed that contains healthy and living cells. However, viability of seeds are affected by multiple factors such as environmental conditions (e.g. temperature and humidity), seed moisture, and seed longevity. Careful handling of seeds are vital to prevent its possible death.

Specifically, the process of germination begins as the seeds absorb water. This process is referred to as the water imbibition when seeds uptake water resulting in the swelling and softening of the seed coat. This is followed by the interim or lag phase as the seed activates its internal physiology and there is mobilization of food preserves. Seeds mainly store food in the forms of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, and these act as the source for energy, carbon, and nitrogen in the process of seed establishment. Lastly, root emergence occurs and there is elongation in cells causing the radicle of the seed, the primary root, to break out.

Again, it should be noted that the process of seed germination is sensitive and vulnerable to particular environmental conditions. These would affect the establishment of seed, its yield, and productivity. In addition, aside from physical factors that affects germination, molecular factors also affect germination and growth such that certain phytohormones (abscisic acid and gibberellins) could either regulate germination or seed dormancy.

To add with these, plant tropisms are mechanisms that allows plants to adapt to certain environmental changes. Tropism is a term used to define plants' growth toward or away from stimulus or factors that affect plant growth. These factors include light, gravity, water, and touch. Plant development emphasizes differential growth in plants, and in this case, is the result of tropisms. Cells are able to grow in one area of a plant organ, separate from an opposite area and the differential growth of the cells that directs the growth of the plant organ, in turn, determines the directional growth of the entire plant. Phytohormones (e.g. auxins) also aid in regulating this phenomenon. Tropism could either be positive tropism or negative tropism, the growth in and away from the direction of a stimulus, respectively.

References:

Ali, A. S., & Elozeiri, A. A. (2017). Metabolic Processes During Seed Germination. Advances in Seed Biology. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70653
Bailey, R. (2018, February 28). Understanding Plant Tropisms. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/plant-tropisms-4159843#:~:text=A%20tropism%20is%20a%20growth,the%20direction%20of%20the%20stimulus.
Pradhan, B. K., & Badola, H. K. (2012). Effect of Storage Conditions and Storage Periods on Seed Germination in Eleven Populations of Swertia chirayita: A Critically Endangered Medicinal Herb in Himalaya. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/128105
Stivers, L., & Dupont, T. (2012, August 28). Seed and seedling biology. Retrieved from https://extension.psu.edu/seed-and-seedling-biology

[5] Seed Bank in the Philippines?

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 12:52:59 UTC

Currently, there is no specific plan to establish a national seed bank for the country. However, there is a nonprofit organization with the goal to establish an organic "seed bank" for the farmers in Northern Philippines. Although the organization used the term "seed bank," the primary goal of a seed bank is to store and preserve seeds for future use in the case that plant species go extinct. In a sense, it is not an actual seed bank that the organization is trying to build. What they are trying to establish is a source for local, low-cost, and sustainable organic seeds. Nonetheless, it is still a nice gesture that they aim to provide farmers better opportunities.

With that thought, it is safe to say that the country might need to establish a seed bank. Philippines is considered as a biodiversity hotspot. Despite this, the current situation shows that our species richness, high endemism, and diversity are at risk due to habitat loss and alteration, and other destructive activities humans are capable of. We must protect our biodiversity at all costs as not only would it give our country pride, but it's also also beneficial for the future generation. It is for them to experience what we had and more.

References:

Biodiversity Philippines. (2016, August 25). Philippines as a biodiversity hotspot. Retrieved from https://biodiversityphilippines.org/philippines-as-a-biodiversity-hotspot/
Global Giving. (2021). Organic Seed Bank Establishment in Philippines. Retrieved from https://www.globalgiving.org/projects/organic-seed-bank-establishment-in-philippines/

[7] It is important for everyone to know a picture of what a seed is and what’s inside of it?

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 21:20:58 UTC

Generally, people are already aware of the appearance of seeds, however, in a sense, it is not necessary for everyone to know the particular parts of seeds. Truthfully, not everyone is inclined to the scientific or agricultural field as others prefer, for example, architecture and technology. People do not feel the need to know in depth information about a single seed as they have other roles to play in the society. Nonetheless, it could be helpful when one is knowledgeable regarding plants, particularly its growth and development. Knowing about the topics such as embryogenesis, germination, and seed dormancy, among many others, may also prove to be beneficial as its allows others to gain insights regarding evolution. Plants have existed for as long as we know, as such, it is a known fact that plants have also endured multiple evolutionary changes. Despite not being obligated to study seeds or other specific topic in the fields of sciences, it is not bad for one to know how a single and small seed function. From the smallest thing, which we sometimes deem to as unimportant, may lead us to discover and further understand the product of millions of years of evolution and how life came to be.

[8] Plant Development

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 21:50:12 UTC

Plant development is a process that is continuous and highly adaptive to environmental conditions in which a certain plant habituates [2]. Technically, plant development begins post-fertilization of the plant embryo - in the process of zygotic embryogenesis until beyond germination. Harada et al. (2010) describes zygotic embryogenesis as the developmental period wherein the zygote undergoes a series of differentiation events that would end at the maturation of the embryo. It is by these series of differentiation that the precursor cells for the shoot and root region are formed. In which case, various genes and hormones are involved to produce a defined and complex organism.

References:

[1] Harada, J., Belmonte, M. & Kwong, R. (2010). Plant embryogenesis (zygotic and somatic). In: eLS. https://www/doi.org/10.1002/9780470015902.a0002042.pub2
[2] Inagaki, S. & Umeda, M. (2011). Chapter Seven - Cell-cycle control and plant development. In International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology, 291, 227-261. https://www/doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386035-4.00007-0

[9] Monocot and (EU)Dicot

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 21:51:00 UTC

Plants are truly diverse, not just in their physical forms, but also in other aspects such as behavior and mechanism of reproduction. As such, they also differ by the fact that some plants are flowering, while some are not. In this case, non-flowering are, from the name itself, plants that do not produce flowers such as ferns and mosses. Additionally, they do not have seeds and instead, they have spores to use for proliferation. As for the flowering plants, they are categorized into two groups of flowering plants, namely "monocot" and "eudicot." Essentially, plants with one cotyledon are called monocots, while those with two cotyledons that face each other are called eudicots. These two have several different characteristics.

For monocots, the number of petals often occurs as multiples of 3 with their leaves being thin and narrow. Moreover, the petioles are absent and the veins are parallel. The roots form fibrous root without distinction between the main root and the lateral root. In its stem, the vessel and sieve tube are irregularly arranged in the vascular bundle, and there is no presence of cambium resulting in the inability of bulk growth in which the stem cannot grow thick.

Conversely, eudicot plants generally have broad leaves and netted venation. The number of petals occurs in multiples of 4 or 5. Vascular bundles are regularly arranged and has ring-shaped cambium between the vessel and the sieve tube. As a result, volume growth could occur and stem can grow thick. In addition, their roots referred to as taproots has a clear distinction between the main root and the lateral root.

Reference:
Digital Atlas of Ancient Life. (2020, June 12). Overview of Angiosperm phylogeny. Retrieved from https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/embryophytes/angiosperms/angiosperm-phylogeny/

[12] Seed Dormancy

danielladegala — 2021-05-25 22:50:06 UTC

Although seeds may remain viable, seeds may still enter a state of dormancy period. This refers to a state wherein germination is temporarily stopped for a certain period of time even, which may last for decades, even when seeds are subjected to favorable environmental conditions. Dormancy of seeds is a characteristic that has been adapted after series of evolution in order to survive in adverse conditions of heat, cold, drought, and salinity. In this case, dormancy plays a significant role in the development and dispersal of both new and existing species. Dormancy could classified into three types, specifically innate dormancy, enforced dormancy, and induced dormancy. The first type of dormancy is the condition in which seeds are incapable of germination even if suitable conditions are provided. Conversely, the second type of dormancy is the condition in which seeds are incapable of germination due to actual environmental restraints. Lastly, the third type of seed dormancy is the condition that occurs when seeds cannot germinate as they are placed under extremely unfavorable, despite being viable and able to imbibe water.

The following are causes for seed dormancy:
1. Physical (mechanical) cause: When the seed coat is too hard for water or air to enter
2. Physiological causes: When embryos do not mature during harvest
3. Phytohormones in seeds: There are phytohormones capable of inducing seed dormancy in plants, specifically abscisic acid (ABA)

Treatments to overcome Seed Dormancy:
A. Softening seed coats and other coverings (Scarification)
1) Mechanical Scarification
2) Hot Water Scarification
3) Acid Scarification
4) Warm Moist Scarification

B. Stratification
1) Refrigerated Stratification
2) Outdoor Stratification
3) Outdoor Planting

C. Leaching
1) Inhibitors in seed coat
2) Inhibitors in pulp

D. Laboratory Treatments
1) Prechilling
2) Pre-drying
3) Alternating Temperatures
4) Light Exposure
5) Potassium Nitrate
6) Hormones

References:

BYJU'S. (2021). Seed dormancy. Retrieved from https://byjus.com/biology/seed-dormancy/
Yildiz, M., Beyaz, R., Gursoy, M., Aycan, M., Koc, Y., & Kayan, M. (2017). Seed Dormancy. Advances in Seed Biology. https://www.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70571