The verb is the word or group of words that says something about what the subject of the sentence is doing, or what is happening to the subject of the sentence. For example :

•This food smells nice.

•I may arrive late.

•My friends are playing football in the garden.

•My parents are teachers.

In a question, the verb is very often split into two parts:

•What are you doing?

•Will you be coming with me?

•Why did she hit him?

Verbs are divided into different kinds.

1. Action verbs are verbs that show actions. (Transitive and Intransitive verbs)

•She cooks a meal for her family.

•She brushes her teeth before she went to bed.

•A policeman maintains law and order in a country.

2. Linking verbs are verbs that are used to link the words on the left side with words on the right side.

•The perfume smells nice.

•This pickle tastes sour.

•She looks beautiful.

3.Intransitive verbs are verbs which do not need any objects.

•Birds sing.

•The sun shines.

•She smiles at me.

4. Transitive verbs are verbs which need objects.

•We saw a tiger.

•She sent a letter to me.

•He plays the piano.

3. HELPING VERB OR AUXILIARY VERBS:

Helping verbs are verbs that are used to help main verbs have clear meanings. They are:

Can

Could

Shall

Should

May

Might

Will

would

be

do

have

must

•This medicine may soothe your cough.

•He does feel homesick.

•She did write to say thank you.

4. VERB PHRASES:

Verb phrases are a combination of helping verbs and main verbs.

•She may find peace of mind in solitude.

•Our students have been studying hard this year.

•I didn't know. He might have been kidding when he said that.

5. OBJECT: What is an object?

The object of the sentence is the person or thing that is affected by the action or state described by the verb. An object can be direct or indirect.

• I am reading a book.

(direct)

• Do you like cheese?

(direct)

• She has lost her car keys.

(direct)

• I gave her a book.

(indirect)

Verbs followed by indirect objects introduced by " to ":

write

give

hand

lend

send

tell

pass

show

offer

Verbs followed by indirect objects introduced by " for":

bring

build

buy

do

fetch

get

change

fix

choose

WHAT CAN BE AN OBJECT?

an objective can be a noun,noun phrase , noun clause, gerund,gerund phrase ,in infinitive or infinitive phrase:

1.Noun

•She usually drinks coffee.

•I bought books yesterday.

•My father has three cars.

2. Pronoun:

•Can you help me?

•She bought herself new bag.

•I love her.

3. Noun Phrase:

•She has got long black hair.

•My friend borrowed me some money.

•Kanha bought a new pink smart phone.

4. Noun clause:

•I don't understand what she wanted to do.

•He admitted that he had made a mistake.

•We don't know that she is coming or not.

5. Gerund:

•I enjoyed swimming.

•So many students are poor at reading.

•Most people like smoking.

6. Gerund phrase:

•Most people in Cambodia like drinking beer.

•She admitted making mistakes.

7. Infinitive: object complement

•The police warn me not to move.

•She asked me to help.

•They forced me to dance.

8. Infinitive Phrase:

•My family plans to run business.

•She wants me to marry her.

Predicate is a verb or a verb phrase or a

A. Simple predicate: There is a verb

• A child was crying.

• A dog is barking.

B. Compound predicate: There are two or more predicates with the same subject.

•She cleaned the house and cooked food.

C. Complete predicate: There is a verb plus all complements or modifiers.

•He is reading and speaking English

• She has been working in a bank for4year.

7. COMPLEMENT: What is a complement?

A complement is a word or group of words that says something about subject or object of a sentence. A complement can be subject-complement or object-complement.

A. Subject-complement: It says something about the subject of a sentence.

•She is an old woman now.

•She looks tired.

•You will get wet if you go out in the rain.

B. Object-complement: It says something about the direct object of a sentence.

•They made him chairman.

•Someday I will prove you wrong!

•Leave the window open.

•Are you calling me a liar

7. ADVERBIALS:

Adverbials are adverbs or any words that function as adverbs in the sentence.

•My wife went to Phnom Penh yesterday.

•He was born in 1998.

•Taxi-drivers should drive a car.

There are three types of adverbials: adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts.

1. An adjunct is a word or group of words that describes where, when, why, how, for whom, with what, how much, etc the action described in the sentence is carried out.

•Are you coming this evening?

•You must have left it somewhere.

•Come and see me tomorrow.

•Soppy sings beautifully.

2. A disjunct is an adverbial that makes a comment about what is being said in the rest of the sentence. A disjunct may describe the way in which the speaker is speaking.

•Frankly, that was a mistake.

•To be frank, that was a mistake.

•Honestly speaking, I shouldn't even be here.

•Hopefully, we can do better next time.

3. A conjunct is an adverbial that serves as a link between sentences.:

•I don't want to go shopping. •Besides, I don't have time to.

•I don't really have time pingo with •you. However, I will if you want me to.

•Firstly, we cannot afford it Secondly, you don't deserve it.

•If you are ready, then I will start.

UNIT 2: SUBJECT - VERB AGREEMENT

A sentence consists of a subject and a verb and a verb must agree with its subject in number.

Here are some subject-verb-agreement rules:

A. Basic Subject-Verb- Agreement

1. Singular subject + singular verb:

•The bridge is closed for repairs.

•This milk contains chemicals.

2. Plural subject + plural verb:

•Many students hope that they will win the scholarship.

•My parents are farmers.

•These books are too old.

3. Singular subject + prepositional phrase + singular verb:

•That book on political parties is interesting.

•A man next to my door is handsome.

•A shop in front of mine sells computers.

4. Plural subject + prepositional phrase + plural verb:

•The ideas in that book are interesting.

•Some students in this class are lazy and extravagant.

•Those phones on the table contain radioactivity.

•The teachers in my country are poor.

5. Every/Each + subject + singular verb:

•Every student has a schedule.

•Every man and woman dies.

•Every child is protected by the law.

6. Gerund + singular verb:

Washing the dishes is the children's job.

•Drinking a glass of water every •morning is good for your health.

•Reading books is my habit.

B. Compound Subjects with Coordinating Conjunctions

7. Subject + and + subject + plural verb:

•Men and women have the equal right in law.

•Computers and phones are popular now.

•My father and mother are Cambodian.

8. Singular subject + or/nor + Singular subject + Singular verb

•Neither my father nor my mother loves me.

•Either the guard or the detective was the first one on the scene.

9. Plural subject + or/nor + Plural subject + Plural verb

• Neither red pens nor pencils are needed for the test.

•Eiher students or lecturers want to visit Angkor Wat during the Khmer New Year's Days.

• Either men or women die.

10. Singular subject + or/nor + Plural subjeet + Plural verb.

C. Using Expression of Quantity

14.Expression of quantity + uncountable noun/singular noun + singular verb:

. A lot of the equipment is new.

. A little sugar is enough.

. Much food contains poisonous substances.

15. Expression of quantity +plural noun + plural verb:

. A lot of my friends are here.

.So many people are unemployed.

.Most students like computer science.

16. One/each/every one of + plural noun + singular verb:

. One of the countries I would like to visit is Singapore.

. Every one of my children works for government.

D. Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects

17. Singular Indefinite pronoun + Singular verb

.Someone is s standing at the door!

each another everyone none other anyone somebody anything

anybody enough either nobody

everything everything

18. Plural indefinite pronoun + Plural verb

.Few are expected to stay for refreshments.

.Both were good choices.

E.Collective nouns and Nouns ending in as Subjects

19. Collective noun (singular unit) + Singular verb

.The crowd is restless tonight.

. This family is rich.

20. Collective noun (individual members/parts) + Plural verb

.The crowd are heading for their seats.

.The swarm are crawling up the young tree.

21. Singular Noun ending in -s + Singular verb

.Mathematics is my favourite subject.

.Physics is more difficult to study than chemistry.

F. Subject after the Verb

22. Adverbial + Singular verb + Singular Subject

.In front of the school stands the girl.

.Quickly walks the girl.

23. Adverbial + Plural verb + Plural subject

.In front of the classroom stand the students.

.Quickly walk the girls.

.On the table are the books.

G. Other rules of Subject-Verb agreement

24. Subject (plural nouns) + Plural verb

.People were running everywhere.

.The police were called to deal with the riot.

25. Subject (uncountable nouns) + Singular verb

.This furniture is dirty.

.Money is powerful.

26. Subject (plural): time, measurement, money, fraction, distance + Singular verb

.Twenty-five dollars is too much to pay for this book.

.Six hundred dollars is enough to buy a new computer.

27. There is/are + N (phrase)

.There are the cattle in the field.

.There are two parties in a coming election.

Unit 3: PRONOUN ANTECEDENTS

An antecedent is the word or group of words to which a pronoun refers or stands for. Basically, every pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 'person', 'number' and 'gender'.

1. Agreement in person:

An antecedent can be the first, second, or third person; therefore, a writer might make mistake if the wrong pronouns are used incorrectly to refer to each person. Examples:

.I don't like playing video games as you don't get any benefits. (Incorrect)

.I don't like playing video games as I don't get any benefits. (Correct)

2. Agreement in number:

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number- singular or plural. Use singular pronouns to refer to singular antecedents and plural pronouns to refer to plural antecedents. Mistakes might be made when:

A. The pronoun is an indefinite pronoun: The pronouns another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, nothing, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, something, someone, etc. are singular and used to replace singular antecedents. For example:

.Everybody should be responsible for their jobs. (Incorrect)

.Everybody should be responsible for his or her jobs. (Correct)

.All employees should be responsible for their jobs. (Correct)

The pronouns both, few, others, several, etc. are plural and used to replace plural antecedents.

.Several can't complete his or her homework. (Incorrect)

.Several can't complete their homework. (Correct)

The pronouns all, any, most, none, some, etc can be both singular and plural depending on context.

.All of the money is spent.

.All of the kids have left school.

context

B.Compound antecedents:

Compound antecedents joined by "and" are plural, and joined by "or" are singular.

.John and Jack have just finished their book.

If two antecedents are joined by either/or, neither/nor, the pronoun agrees with the antecedent losest to it.

. Either Chanthy or his friends will bring their course books.

C.Antecedent followed by a prepositional phrase: The pronoun agrees with the antecedent, not the object of the prepositional phrase.

.Each of the books has their different cover. (Incorrect)

.Each of the books has its different cover. (Correct)

D. Collective antecedents:

Collective noun can be either singular or plural, depending on the context; for examples,

. The jury took only two hours to reach its verdict. (Refer to the whole group)

.The jury took only two hours to reach their verdict. (Refer to the members)

3. Agreement in gender

There could be mistakes when using the antecedent that could refer to a man or a woman.

To correct the mistake, just make the antecedent plural. For examples,

.A person should make their own decision. (Incorrect)

.A person should make his or her own decision. (Correct)

.People should make their own decisions. (Correct)

Vague pronoun antecedent: Vague pronoun antecedent occurs when a pronoun could refer to two possible antecedents. This causes confusing meaning. For examples, • Sophy asked Dary if the teacher want to see her. (Incorrect)

4. Other problems:

. Vague pronoun antecedent: Vague pronoun antecedent occurs when a pronoun could refer to two possible antecedents. This causes confusing meaning. For examples, • Sophy asked Dary if the teacher want to see her. (Incorrect)

4. Other problems:

A.Vague pronoun antecedent: Vague pronoun antecedent occurs when a pronoun could refer to two possible antecedents. This causes confusing meaning. For examples,

.Sophy asked Dary if the teacher want to see her. (Incorrect).

.Sophy asked Dary if the teacher want to see Sophy. (Correct)

.Sophy asked Dary if the teacher want to see Dary. (Correct)

B. Missing its antecedent: Sometimes the antecedent of the pronoun is missing; for example.

. He felt sad when he left his house. (Incorrect).

.John felt sad when he left Nara's house. (Correct)

Unit4: PARALLEL STRUCTURE

Parallel structure (also called parallelism) is the repetition of a chosen grammatical form within a sentence, i.e. by making each compared item or idea in your sentence follow the same grammatical pattern. Parallelism provides clarity, elegance, and symmetry to what you say. Words or groups of words linked together with a coordinating or correlative conjunction are often doing the same job and need to be parallel. For example:

1. Noun + noun

.He likes volleyball, soccer, and to play basketball. (Not parallel)

2. Noun phrase + noun phrase

.She is allergic to the dog's hair and how it smells. (Not parallel)

3. Noun clause + noun clause

What counts isn't how you look but your behavior. (Not parallel)

4. Verb + verb

.He doesn't have enough time to play sports, does social work, and socializing with friends.

5. Adjective + adjective

.She is smart, beautiful, and care. (Not parallel)

.She is smart, beautiful, and caring. (Parallel)

6. Adverb + adverb

.He is kind, gentle, handsome, and friendly. (Parallel)

.He made decision slowly and with caution. (Not parallel)

.He made decision slowly and cautiously. (Parallel)

7. Gerund + gerund

.Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle. (Not parallel)

.Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle. (Parallel)

8. Infinitive + infinitive

.He intended to read the book, do homework, and research. (Not parallel)

.He intended to read the book, to do homework, and to conduct research. (Parallel)

9. Prepositional phrase + prepositional phrase

.He looked for the keys in the car, under the bed, and his bag. (Notparallel)

.He looked for the keys in the car, under the bed, and in his bag. (Parallel)

C. Using Expression of Quantity

14.Expression of quantity + uncountable noun/singular noun + singular verb:

. A lot of the equipment is new.

. A little sugar is enough.

. Much food contains poisonous substances.

15. Expression of quantity +plural noun + plural verb:

. A lot of my friends are here.

.So many people are unemployed.

.Most students like computer science.

16. One/each/every one of + plural noun + singular verb:

. One of the countries I would like to visit is Singapore.

. Every one of my children works for government.

D. Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects

17. Singular Indefinite pronoun + Singular verb

.Someone is s standing at the door!

each another everyone none other anyone somebody anything

anybody enough either nobody

everything everything

18. Plural indefinite pronoun + Plural verb

.Few are expected to stay for refreshments.

.Both were good choices.

E.Collective nouns and Nouns ending in as Subjects

19. Collective noun (singular unit) + Singular verb

.The crowd is restless tonight.

. This family is rich.

20. Collective noun (individual members/parts) + Plural verb

.The crowd are heading for their seats.

.The swarm are crawling up the young tree.

21. Singular Noun ending in -s + Singular verb

.Mathematics is my favourite subject.

.Physics is more difficult to study than chemistry.

F. Subject after the Verb

22. Adverbial + Singular verb + Singular Subject

.In front of the school stands the girl.

.Quickly walks the girl.

23. Adverbial + Plural verb + Plural subject

.In front of the classroom stand the students.

.Quickly walk the girls.

.On the table are the books.

G. Other rules of Subject-Verb agreement

24. Subject (plural nouns) + Plural verb

.People were running everywhere.

.The police were called to deal with the riot.

25. Subject (uncountable nouns) + Singular verb

.This furniture is dirty.

.Money is powerful.

26. Subject (plural): time, measurement, money, fraction, distance + Singular verb

.Twenty-five dollars is too much to pay for this book.

.Six hundred dollars is enough to buy a new computer.

27. There is/are + N (phrase)

.There are the cattle in the field.

.There are two parties in a coming election.

• Nimol and Sophanet are cousins.

I. A simple sentence with compound subjects and compound verbs:

Subject + Subject + Verb + Verb +....

• Fresh water and salt water do not boil and do not freeze at the same temperature.

• Panha and Phalla study and work in Phnom Penh.

• My mother and my aunt bought and gave me a present.

• Sokha and Dary buy and sell gold in New Market.

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

An independent clause can stand by itself but a dependent clause cannot stand by itself.

Example:

• While I was cooking dinner, my phone rang.

• When you go out, you should lock your house doors.

• Before you eat rice, you must wash your hands.

• I don't know why she was angry with me.

Dependent clauses are divided into three kinds, as: noun clause, adjective clause and advert clause. These dependent clauses used with main clause in order to form the complex senten A complex sentence is formed with:

Rule 1: Independent Clause + Dependent Clause

• You didn't look very well when you got up this morning.

• She told me that the party had been cancelled.

• Take an umbrella with in case it rains.

Rule 2: Dependent Clause, + Independent Clause

• Whenever I see her, I say hello.

• If you want to attend university, you have to pass your grade 12 exam.

• Although Sophy didn't have much money, she bought a new car.

A. A complex sentence with dependent noun clause:

1. Noun Clause with that

• She told me that she is single.

• It's obvious that he is going to be late.

• It's a pity that she is going to be late.

• They believe that I trust them.

• I know that she is going to be late.

• I know she is going to be late.

• It is annoying that you don't trust me.

2. Noun Clause with Yes/No question (if/whether)

• Tell me if he has signed the contract.

• Ask him whether he has signed the contract.

• I wonder to know if you are at home.

3. Noun Clause with Wh-word questions

• Tell me when you went home last night.

• I don't know why she looks at me.

• I don't know where we should go for our holiday.

• Tell me what I can do to help you.

B. A complex sentence with dependent adjective clauses/relative clause

• The book which is on the table is mine.

• A girl whom I love is nasty.

• A man who is standing over there is my brother.

• The hotel where we are staying is luxurious.

C. A complex sentence with dependent adverbial clauses.

1. Main Clauses with Adverb Clauses of Time make complex sentences.

• I went to the tower when I visited London.

• I lost a lot of weight when I was ill.

• I phoned home immediately after I arrived in the airport building.

2. Main Clauses with Adverb Clauses of Place make complex sentences.

• Where you are, there I am.

• My dog follows me wherever I go.

• This is the exact spot where the accident happened.

3. Main Clauses with Adverb Clauses of Manner make complex sentences.

• I feel as if I am floating on air.

• It sounds as if it is raining.

• Type this again as I showed you a moment ago.

4. Main clauses with Adverbial Clauses of Reason make complex sentences.

• As it is a public holiday, you will find many schools closed.

• Since it is a public holiday, you won't find many shops open.

• We have to go back home because the teacher doesn't come to teach us.

5. Main clauses with Adverbial Clauses of Contrast make complex sentences.

• Though I am good at history, I still failed in the teacher recruitment exam.

• I am going to buy a computer even though I haven't got much money.

• I would like to help you much as I am afraid I won't be able to.

6. Main Clauses with Adverbial Clauses of Purpose make complex sentences.

• I spent a year in England in order that I might learn English.

• We spent 3 years in Phnom Penh so that we could learn Korean.

• Take an umbrella with you in case it rains.

7. Main Clauses with Adverbial Clauses of Result make complex sentences.

• We were so tired that we went to bed.

• We are so old that we cannot remember anything well.

8. Main Clauses with Adverbial Clauses of Comparison make complex sentences.

• He is as tall as I am.

• She is taller than I am.

• She is not so intelligent as her brother.

(Week06) D. Joining sentences with present participle makes complex sentence.

Ex: I found the front door locked and went round the back. (compound sentence)

Finding the front door locked, I went round the back.

(complex sentence)

• Not knowing his phone number, I wasn't able to ring him.

• Being short of money, I couldn't afford to buy a new computer.

• Finding this exercise difficult, I skip it.

E. Present Participle in place of adverbial clauses can make complex sentence.

Ex: Since we arrived here, we have made many new friends. (complex sentence)

Since arriving here, we have made many new friends.

(complex sentence)

• They broke this window when trying to get into the house.

• Though refusing to eat, he admitted he was very hungry.

F. Present Participle in place of Relative clause can make complex sentence.

• The man standing ahead is handsome. (who is standing)

• The new law applies to vehicles carrying heavy loads. (which are carrying)

• Passengers travelling on planes shouldn't smoke. (who travel)

G. Perfect/past participle with simple sentence can make complex sentence.

• Being lost, I had to ask someone the way. (I am lost, so I had to ask s.o the way)

• Having been abroad, I missed the elections. (I have been abroad, so I missed...)

• It being Sunday, it was hard to find a garage open.

H. Past Participle instead of passives with simple sentence can make complex sentence.

• The vegetables sold in this shop are grown without chemicals.

• When read aloud, the poem is very effective.

A Compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses. Example:

- I read a book and my brother did his homework.

- Mary reads novels, but Dary reads comics.

- There are three ways to form Compound Sentences.

A. Compound Sentence with Coordinating Conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions are used to link an independent clause and independent clause in order to make compound sentences. There are seven coordinating conjunctions such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so and sometimes they are called FANBOYS

- My brother has a phone and a computer.

- It was not my fault, nor his.

- They couldn't understand it at the time, and nor could we.

- I don't expect children to be rude, nor do I expect to be disobeyed.

- I would like to go but I am too busy.

- Shall we go out to the cinema or stay at home?

We can use conjunctions to show, for example:

Addition (and)

: She didn't speak to anyone and nobody spoke to her.

Continuation (and then)

He washed the car and then polished it.

Contrast (but, yet)

: She sold her house, but/yet she can't help regretting it

Choice (or)

: Would you like a coffee or something?

Result (so)

: He couldn't find his pen, so wrote in pencil.

Reason (for)

: He rarely stays in hotels, for he cannot afford it.

We can join two or more simple sentences to make a compound sentence as following rule.

+ Rule: Independent clause (,) + Coordinator Independent clause

- I rarely stay in hotels, for I cannot afford it.

- My father washed his car and he polished it.

- You can call me at twelve or at five.

- She couldn't find her pen, so she wrote in pencil

- Makara fell off his bike, but he was unhurt.

- Tom phoned and Frank answered.

- Tom phoned and left a message.

Also, correlative conjunctions such as either.....or, neither......nor, not only... but also..both...and...etc are used to make compound sentences.

- My mother is not only a farmer, but she is also a housewife. I neither know not care what happened to him

- Either you can give me some advice, or your friend can.

- He can both speaks and writes English.

B. Compound Sentence with Conjunctive Adverbs A compound sentence can be formed from two independent clauses joined by a semicolon (;) a conjunctive adverb and a comma (.).

+ Rule: Independent clause+;+ Conjunctive adverb +.+ Independent clause

- Mary reads novels, however, Dary reads comics Students must take the final exam, otherwise, they will receive incomplete grades.

- You are an honest man, nevertheless, I believe you a little. The rent is reasonable; moreover, the location is perfect.

- Smoking is linked with heart disease; besides, it is linked with stroke. She already had a lot of experience, therefore, she seemed the best candidate for the job,

- The rent is reasonable, what is more, the location is perfect.

Note: These are coordinators and conjunctive adverbs which express similar relationship.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Conjunctive Adverbs Moreover, besides, also, furthermore,

Meaning

And

Additional idea

what is more, in addition,

But, yet

However,

nevertheless,

still,

Contrast idea

nonetheless

Or

Otherwise

Choice

So

Therefore, thus, consequently,

hence,

Result

accordingly.

C. Compound Sentences with Semicolons

A compound sentence is also formed from two independent clauses joined by a semicolon

+ Rule :Independent clause: Independent clause

- Mony loves Veasna, she loves him.

- My older brother studies laws; my younger brother studies politics.

- Ratha loves Nary, she loves Sovanna.

Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and it must express a complete though. when your sentence is not a complete sentence, you may make some errors. When a word group that lacks a subject or a verb and that doesn't express a complete thought is a fragment.

A fragment is a group of words masquerading as a sentence. It does not express a complete thought, so a fragment can confuse a reader. Most fragments in writing are phrases, dependent clauses, words in a series, and -ing and to fragments

A sentence fragment may look like a sentence because it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period

1) Phrase Fragments Phrase fragments may consist of modified nouns with verbs, modified verbs or prepositional, appositive, or verbal phrases. You may be able to correct phrase fragments by attaching them to nearby sentences A. Prepositional fragment

- Across campus this afternoon.

Added to nearby sentence:

- Bora walked across campus this afternoon.

B. Participial fragment

- Angered by the injustice of the remark.

- Added to nearby sentence:

- Angered by the injustice of the remark, Sophy argued with her friend.

C. Noun phrase fragment

- A single long-stemmed rose.

Completed sentence

- A single long-stemmed rose stood in a crystal bud vase.

D. Infinitive fragment

- To address the envelopes.

Completed sentence

- To address the envelopes was a tedious job.

2) Clause Fragments

Subordinate clauses are another construction that should not be capitalized and punctuated as sentences. Instead, you should connect them to nearby independent clauses by yourself.

A. Adjective clause fragment: Which was a condensed version.

Completed sentence

- I read an abridgment, which was a condensed version.

B. Adverb clause fragment

- While I was waiting in line.

Completed sentence

- While I was waiting in line, I saw a beautiful woman,

C. Noun clause fragment

Completed sentence

- Whatever you are cooking - We will cat whatever you are cooking.

3) Series Fragments

Sometime, a series of words or phrases may be so long that it may make you confuse and think it is a sentence. You have to be sure that each of your sentences has a subject and a verb in order to avoid writing series fragments.

Series fragment

- A flowering pink cherry tree near the fence, red and d yellow primroses

- Along the borders, and neat rectangular beds of orange and yellow tulips

Completed sentence.

- A flowering pink cherry tree blooms near the fence, red and yellow primrose

4) -Ing and To fragments

When an -ing word appears at or near the start of a word group, a fragment may result. Such fragments often lack a subject and part of the verb. When to appears at or near the start of a word group, a fragment sometimes results.

A. -Ing fragment Completed sentence

: Trying to find his cat Kitty,

: Trying to find his cat Kitty, Bora walked all over the neighborhood yesterday.

B. To fragment

Completed sentence

: To impress her date.

At the Italian restaurant, Jane used chopsticks to impress her date.

UNIT 2: CHOPPY SENTENCES

Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. Short sentences can be effective in certain situations. However, 10o many short sentences can make your writing or academic writing appear unsophisticated and your ideas seem disconnected. Choppy sentences can be easy to correct. We can combine two or more short sentences to make one compound or complex sentence when the ideas in the short sentences are equal or dependent on the other.

1. If the sentences express equal ideas, use coordinator to combine them.

Choppy:

Old-growth forests are disappearing. Citizens should take action.

Corrected:

Old-growth forests are disappearing, and citizens should take action.

Choppy:

She took dance classes. She had no natural grace or sense of rhythm.

Corrected:

She took dance classes, but she had no natural grace or sense of rhythm.

2. If the sentences express unequal ideas, use a subordinate to combine them.

Choppy:

Bears emerge from hibernation in the spring. They wander through wetlands.

They feed mainly on grasses.

Revised:

When bears emerge from hibernation in the spring, they wander through wetlands and feed mainly on grasses.

Choppy:

Revised:

Gasoline became expensive. Automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller car. Smaller cars use less gasoline.

When gasoline became expensive, automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars, which use less gasoline.

3. Combining sentences use phrases.

Choppy:

My aunt is very strict with my cousin. She expects her to study all the time.

Revised:

My aunt is very strict with my cousin, expecting her to study all the time.

1 4. Integrating minor details.

Choppy:

The boy asked his father a question. The boy is five years old. The question was about death.

Revised:

The five-year-old boy asked his father a question about death

5 Use appositive.

Choppy:

Revised:

Jesse Venture has denied an interest in running for the senate. Venture is the former governor of Minnesota.

Jesse Venture, the former governor of Minnesota, has denied an interest in running for the senate

UNIT 3: RUN-ON SENTENCES

A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are not joined properly.

Run-on sentences have been known as fused sentence and comma splice. Therefore, there are two kinds of run-on sentence. They are fused sentences and comma splices.

1. A fused sentence is a sentence which has no punctuation to mark the break between the thoughts.

• My brother went to Thailand then he immigrated to Malaysia.

• Some people like keeping fit they eat less food.

• He has won the scholarship so he is so happy.

• Bora passed the exam he had studied hard.

• Sophy missed her mother so she went to visit her.

6 2. A comma splice happens when two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by a comma.

Comma splices occur only in compound or compo d complex sentences. Example:

• My brother went to Thailand, then he immigrated to Malaysia.

• Some people like keeping fit, they eat less food.

• She got a flat tire, she could not come to class on time.

7 FIXING RUN-ON SENTENCES:

A fused sentence and Comma splice can be corrected in one of following ways.

1. Use a period to make separate independent clauses (a simple sentence)

• My brother went to Thailand, Then he immigrated to Malaysia.

• Some people like keeping fit. They eat less food.

• He has won the scholarship. He is so happy.

• Bora passed the exam. He had studied hard.

• Sophy missed, her mother

8 She went to visit her.

2. Use a subordinating conjunction (because, while, when, although, which, before, after, etc.)

• My brother went to Thailand before he immigrated to Malaysia.

• Since some people like keeping fit, they eat less food.

9 After he has won the scholarship, he is so happy.

• Bora passed the exam because he had studied hard.

• When Sophy missed her mother, she went to visit her.

10 3. Add a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, for, nor, yet) for boys

• My brother went to Thailand, and then he immigrated to Malaysia.

• Split infinitive: My mother told me to never lie.

• Revised: My mother told me never to lie.

• Split infinitive: She intended to quickly leave a message.

• Revised: She intended to leave a message quickly.

UNIT 10: WORDY SENTENCE

A wordy sentence contains too many words than you really need. The extra words do not make your writing sound better and, in fact, they can even interfere with your message. For example,

• Wordy: Pisey, who is an accountant, has been prothoted.

Revised: Pisey, an accountant, has been promoted.

Wordy: The company is taking applications at this point in time.

Revised: The company is taking applications now.

AVOIDING WORDINESS: Avoiding wordiness makes your sentences varied and sound more fluent. To do so, you may use one of the following methods:

1. Remove unnecessarily repeated ideas or words.

Wordy: The teacher decided to give extra work to his students. The main reasons of giving extra work to his students was that students were so dependent on their teachers.

Revised: The teacher decided to give extra work to his students because they were so dependent on

their teachers.

2. Take out words that are already implied by other words in the same sentence.

Wordy: The round yellow sun shone brightly among the clouds in the sky. [The sun is understood to

be round; the clouds too is understood to be in the sky.]

Revised: The sun shone brightly among the clouds.

3. Replace wordy phrases with single words.

Wordy: It is hard to find a good job at the present time.

Revised: It is hard to find a good job now.

Wordy: Mary dropped her school due to the fact that she was poor.

Revised: Mary dropped her school because she was poor.

4. Simplify your sentence structures.

Wordy: Kra-nhoung, which is a rare wood, is being logged and illegally traded.

Revised: Kra-nhoung, a rare wood, is being logged and illegally traded.

Wordy: He wears a watch which is made of gold.

Revised: He wears a gold watch.

5. Remove or reword expletives (there is, there are, it is) and similar expressions which refer to nothing in particular.

Wordy: There are many factors causing poverty.

Revised: Many factors cause poverty.

Wordy: It is not known that my boss will decide to choose a new supplier.

Revised: My boss' decision to choose a new supplier is unknown.

6. Limit or avoid phrases describing your attitudes and writing strategies.

Wordy: It seems to me that teachers should allow students to skip class.

Revised: Teachers should allow students to skip class.

• UNIT 11: DOUBLE NEGATIVE

Double negative is one of the common problems in writing especially for non-native speakers. It occurs when two negative words are used in a single clause. It is produced by combining a negative word with a negative pronoun, negative adverb, and another negative word.

1. With a negative pronoun:

The negative pronouns are none, nothing, nowhere, nobody, no one, neither, etc. For examples,

- I didn't meet nobody there. (Double negative) → I met nobody there.

- He didn't do nothing. (Double negative) → He did nothing.

2. With negative words:

The negative adverbs are not, hardly, scarcely, never, barely, seldom, etc. For examples,

- I couldn't hardly wait to get to the party. (Double negative)

→ I could hardly wait to get to the party.

- 1 did not barely understand what you were saying. (Double negative)

→ I barely understood what you were saying.

3. With a negative word:

- The city is not unattractive. (Double negative) → The city is unattractive.

- She is not unhappy. (Double negative) → She is unhappy.

Why do you need to avoid double negative?

You need to know that when you use two negative words in a sentence, the meaning will be positive.

For examples,

- She is not unhappy. = She is happy.

- He didn't do nothing. = He did something.

UNIT 1: PARAGRAPHS

1 Definition : What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of sentences about one topic or one main ideas. In academic area, it is recommended to write between 6 12 sentences.

Structure and Element of Paragraphs

A Organization of Paragraphs:

A good paragraph contains 3 main elements. There are

1 Topic Sentence (Just only one sentence)

2. Supporting Sentences (Developing idea giving details)

1. Concluding Sentence Summary/Restate/Suggest/Prediction)

Outlines of Paragraphs:

+Topic Sentence

Topic controlling idea

+Supporting sentence

1.Supporting ideas (Developing ideas)+ Supporting detail (Adding details)

* explanation

*example

*reason

2. Supporting ideas (Developing ideas) +Supporting detail (Adding details): explanation, example, reason.

3. Supporting ideas (Developing ideas) Supporting detall (Adding details):explanation, example,reason

+Conclusion

1. a restatement of the topic sentence

2) a sommary of what has been written

3. a prediction about the topic

4) a suggestion about the topic

Features of Paragraphs

Topic sentence:

A topic sentence tells the readers what the paragraph is about. It usually introduces the topic or main idea of the paragraph. It is usually the first sentence. The topic sentence should contain a clear topic and a controlling idea.

HOW TO WRITE A GOOD TOPIC SENTENCE

A good topic sentence should not be:

1. Too broad ( very general)

2. Too narrow ( very specific)

+A good topic sentence must include one topic and one controlling idea.

• Topic: A topic is what you want to write about.

•Controlling idea: Controlling idea limits what you will write about. It tells what the whole paragraph will say about the topic. For examples:

_ There are advantages of learning English.

_Kep beach is attractive for several reasons.

_Internet revolutionize the mean of people communicating.

How to write a good supporting sentence

To write supporting sentences, a writer must first brainstorm for supporting ideas by simply converting the topic sentences into topic question and answer question. For examples:

• Topic sentence: There are three advantages of learning English.

→ Topic question: What are the three advantages?

• Topic sentence: Bora is a hard-working student.

→ Topic question: What make Bora a hard-working student?

How to write a good concluding paragraph

The writer may restate the topic sentence, summarize what has been written, make a prediction about the topic, or make a suggetion about the topic.

You may use either of the four ways to write a concluding sentence .

1. Restating the topic sentence: Rewrite the topic sentence in differcet words

For example. In short, to boil an egg requires these four processes

2. Summarizing what has been written. Summarize the main ideas discused in the paragraph .For example, In short, putting an egg in the pot. filling with water, heating on the heat, and leaving for three mimtes are the necossary steps for boil eggs perfectly.

3 Making a prediction about the topic. The prediction must be related to the topic. it is not something new.

For example, In short, ones may not think of other steps to get an egg boiled properly

4. Making a suggestion about the topic. The prediction must be related to the topic: it is not something new.

For example, In short, ones should follow these processes to get an egg boiled properly.

Characteristics of a good paragraph:

A good paragraph should have unity and cohesion

1 Unity

The paragraph should be about only one clear topic or main idea .All of the sentences must explan or develop this topic. The unity helps readers to understand the paragraph better.

2. Coherence

In addition to unity, all of the sentences in a paragraph should have relationshup, that is coherence.

To make the sentences cohesive to one another, a writer needs to use transitional words .Example:

+Introducing examples:

for example, for instance, namely, such as...

+Showing addition:

and, in addition, as well as, also, too, furthermore, moreover, apart from...

+Making conclusion:

in short, in brief, in summary, to summarize, all in all, to conclule..

+Showing chronological order :

at the beginning ,after that, at the end, firstly, secondly, fimally...

+Showing reasons due to, due to the fact that, owing to /owing to the fact that, because .

+Showing result: therefore, so, consequently, this means that, as a result..

+Showing contrast:

but, however, although /even though, despite/ despite the fact that ,in spite of the fact that, nevertheless, nonetheless, while, whereas.

There are four main types of paragraphs: descriptive, persuasive, narrative, and expository paragraph.

1) Descriptive paragraph:

It is a paragraph that describes people, places, things, benefits, advantages, or disadvantages.

2) Persuasive paragraph:

It is a paragraph that is aimed to persuade the readers about something (cause, effect, opinion, argument...).

3) Narrative paragraph:

It is a paragraph that narrates a story, events, or personal experiences.

4) Expository paragraph:

It is a paragraph that explores about something (scientific experiment, analysis ...).

The expository paragraph is further grouped as:

+Classification paragraph - It puts thing into groups or classes.

+ Cause and effect paragraph - It either shows causes or effects of something.

+Comparison and contrast paragraph - It shows similarities or differences of things.

+Process analysis paragraph - It teaches how to do thing or how thing happens.

+Definition paragraph - It defines something with definition and details.

+Illustration paragraph - It explains about something with supporting of examples.

UNIT 2: DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH

A. Definition of Descriptive Paragraph :

Descriptive paragraph describes about a person, place, thing, benefit, characteristic, advantage, disadvantage. The purpose of a descriptive paragraph is aimed to draw or show picture (don't tell) in the reader's mind. Writer needs to include description to draw that image.

B. Pattern for Descriptive Paragraph

There are slightly different of descriptive structure. It depends on the purpose of description.

a. Description of people can be:

1. Describe about appearance (how he/she looks) and personality (how his/her manner)

2. Describe about admiration of knowledge/talents/skills (experiences-background, work, study, achievement...), and hobby

b. Description of place can be:

The important elements of description could be the description of the five senses.

Five features of senses

1) what you see

2) what you hear

3) what/how you feel

4) what you smell,

5) what you taste

Supposed that you are going to write about a place, Wat Phnom, then you may come up with this description:

• What you see: hill, stupa, pagoda, monasteries, museum, trees, grass, big clock, people, monk monkeys, elephant...

• What you hear: wind, people praying/talking, bird singing...

• What you smell: incense, flowers, perfume...

• What you feel: quiet, fresh, relaxing, holly place...

I. Definition of Persuasive paragraph

A persuasive paragraph aims to seek support for a writer's opinion or argument. It convinces the readers to accept a particular point of view or take a specific action. Therefore, a writer needs to include reasons and examples to support his opinion. The reasons and examples can be opinions or facts ( statistics, figures, result of study, survey, etc. )

II. Structure of Persuasive Paragraph

* Topic sentence: Topic + Controlling idea: ( topic + an opinion or argument about something )

* Supporting sentence:

• supporting ideas 1+ supporting details 1 (Arguments ( facts / opinions ) + examples / explanations)

• supporting ideas 2+ supporting details 2 ( Arguments ( facts / opinions ) + examples / explanations )

• supporting ideas 3+ supporting details 3 + Counterargument (Arguments ( facts / opinions ) + examples / explanations )

* Controlling idea: Restate, Summarize, Predict, or Suggest.

III. Outline

1. Topic sentence: I highly support the idea that mobile phone should be banned in school for several reasons.

2. Supporting sentences:

A. Supporting idea 1 + Detail1

+They can distract student from their study.

- to be more specific, application or game available on mobile phones

- can keep student's attention

- reduce their connection on the lesson the teacher is giving.

B. Supporting idea 2 + Detail 2

+Students are using mobile phone are more likely to cheat during exam

- they can easily contact and seek help from people outside via text message

- other chat apps such as viber, zalo, etc.

- If you change how you think then you will change how you feel and what actions you take.

C. Supporting idea 3 + Detail 3 + Counter argument + Reputation

+Allowing students to use mobile phones at school will somehow widen the gap between the rich and the poor

- Detail 3 : can cause some students to feel different or even inferior to their peers.

- Counter argument (State the opposite idea) However, using mobile phone in class is the way to facilitate the student in getting urgent information from their parents when they are in class.

3. Concluding Sentence: In summary, although mobile phones have a number of advantages, their use at school should be banned or at least kept under control.

I. Definition of Narrative Paragraph

Narrative paragraph tells a story or an event. Events in narrative paragraph should be arranged chronologically, that is in the order in which they have happened. The common Transitional expressions used in a narrative paragraph are: after, finally, soon, as (soon as), later, then, before, meanwhile, upon, during, next, when, first, now, and while.

- The topic sentence of a narrative paragraph does not start the narration. It establishes a purpose. It does not tell only a story, but also the reader's view point. Hence, writing a strong topic sentence is important.

II. Pattern of the Narrative Paragraph

A. Narration of Personal experience / memory Pattern

1. Topic Sentence: State the topic and its controlling idea (what the writer wants to write about).

2. Supporting Sentence

-The story or event happens 3 different stages :

1) Beginning of the story-the beginning tells what happens first in the story. It can be the problem which make the story or event happen. 2) Middle of the story-the middle tells the main events or important activities of the story / event.

3 ) End of the story-the end tells the final events, i.e. the result or what brings the end of the story / event.

3. Conclusion: It is a concluding sentence. The writer can either restate the topic sentence, give a concluding remark, make a prediction about the story, or make a suggestion.

B. Narration of Story Pattern

A good narrative paragraph of the story normally requires three necessary components:

1. Background information

2. The story / Event

3. And conclusion.

1. Background information

The background information sets the scene for the audience. It includes the following pieces of information:

• A topic sentence

• What story / event is about

• Who it is about

• When it happens

• Where it happens

• Where is the source of the narrative.

2. Story

The story or event happens 3 different stages:

• Beginning of the story-the beginning tells what happens first in the story. It can be the problem which make the story or event happen • Middle of the story-the middle tells the main events or important activities of the story / event.

• End of the story-the end tells the final events, i.e. the result or what brings the end of the story / event.

3. Conclusion

It is a concluding sentence. The writer can either restate the topic sentence, give a concluding remark, make a prediction about the story, or make a suggestion.

UNIT 5 : DEFINITION PARAGRAPH

I. Definition of Definition Paragraph

There are different opinions of the definition paragraph. According to Folse et al ( 2010 ), definition paragraph defines something. Similarly, Anker ( 2010 ) stated that definition paragraph explains what a term or concept means. The definition paragraph has two purposes:

• Tells what something is.

• Gives facts, details, and examples to make the definition clear to the reader.

II . Structure of Definition Paragraph

1. Topic Sentence = Topic + Class / Category + features / characteristics

2. Supporting Sentences =

• Supporting idea 1 ( Examples / explains ) + Supporting detail 1 ( Details of the examples

• Supporting idea 1 ( Examples / explains ) + Supporting detail 1 ( Details of the examples )

• Supporting idea 1 ( Examples / explains ) + Supporting detail 1 ( Details of the examples ) 3. Concluding Sentence Restate /Summarize /Predict, or Suggest

III . Techniques of Developing Each Part of Definition Paragraph

1. How to Write Topic Sentence

The topic sentence of definition paragraph contains a term ( topic ), the term's category or class , and the term's features or characteristics . Therefore,

- Topic Sentence-Topic + Class / Category + features / characteristics

For examples:

• I define term of true friend as being dependable, loyal, and caring.

• Insomnia is a sleep disorder that prevents people from sleeping.

• Stress is the response of the body to any changes happening.

2. How to Write Supporting Sentences

Supporting sentences in definition Paragraph explain what a term or concept means by providing specific examples and giving details about the examples so that your readers understand what the writer means. Therefore,

- Supporting Sentences Examples / explains+Details of the examples

Here are the examples: True Friend

Topic sentence : There are many definitions of true friend, but to me, I define term of true friend as being dependable, loyal, and caring.

Supporting sentences:

• SI 1. true friends mean the one who is dependable. + Details

• SI 2. true friend is one who is loyal to you + Details

• SI 3. true friend is the one who is caring you a lot + Details

3. How to Write Concluding Sentence

This is the last part of the paragraph, and usually it goes the same way as other types of paragraph the writer may choose one of these as the concluding sentence:

• Restate the topic sentence,

• Summarize the main ideas,

• Predict something about the topic,

• Suggest something about the topic.

I. Definition of the Illustration Paragraph

Illustration paragraph (which is also called exemplification paragraph) uses examples to make an idea

or generalization more specific and detailed.

II. Structure of the Illustration Paragraph

TITLE

1. Topic Sentence = Idea/Generalization + Opinion on the idea/generalization

2. Supporting Sentence =

- Supporting Idea 1: Example 1 (Fact/Opinion) + Supporting Detail: Details/Explanation on example 1

- Supporting Idea 2: Example 2 (Fact/Opinion) + Supporting Detail: Details/Explanation on example 2

- Supporting Idea 3: Example 3 (Fact/Opinion) + Supporting Detail: Details/Explanation on example 3

3. Concluding Sentence = 1. Restate, 2. Summarize, 3. Predict, or 4. Suggest

III. Sample of the Illustration Paragraph

Sample 1:

SMOKING

Smoking is not good. Initially, when you smoke, your health will be risk. For example, you might

get lung cancer. Furthermore, if you smoke, you will need to spend a lot of money. Supposed that a

pack of cigarette cost three hundred riels every day, you may need to spend more than a million riel per

year, which is useless. This is a huge amount of expense. Last but not least, whenever you smoke, you

will be a bad model for your next generation or children. For instance, your children have seen you

always smoke, so they may think it is okay to smoke, which is actually wrong; thus, they also want to

smoke as you do. In brief, you should not smoke.

UNIT 7: COMPARISON AND CONTRAST PARAGRAPHS

I. Definition of comparison and contrast paragraph

A comparison and contrast paragraph show similarities or differences between two people, objects, or

ideas and convince or show that one thing is better or worse than another. Note that Comparison

indicates similarities and Contrast indicates differences between those two objects, people, or ideas.

In comparison and contrast paragraph may include:

1) Only similarities

2) Only differences

3) Both similarities and differences

This depends on the topic and purpose. Usually, the purpose of comparison and contrast is always

stated in the topic sentence of a paragraph.

II. Structure of Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

Comparison and contrast can be outlined in two approaches:

1. The Point-by-point Structure:

Sample 1

High School and College

Even though high school and college are both places of learning, they differ in at least three ways.

The first difference is their social atmospheres. (A1) In high school the class is usually smaller, so most

students know one another well. (B1) In college, students don’t know one another well as students are

constantly coming and going. The second difference is their accountability. (A2) In high school, the

students are forced to learn; if they don’t learn, it could be the teachers’ fault. (B2) In college, in college

the students are expected to learn. If they don’t learn, it is the students’ fault. The third and last

difference is their success. (A3) The students succeed in high school when they can complete the

assigned work. (B3) In college, the students’ success is determined when they do the unassigned work.

That is extra research that relates their lessons to the application in real life. In spite of these differences

between high school and college, they both serve the same purpose — to prepare an individual for the

real world.

I. Definition of Process Analysis Paragraph

A process analysis paragraph is written to tell how to do something or how something is done. It may

be a recipe, or instructions on how to fix something, or directions to a place.

There are two different types of process analysis:

• Directive process analysis: explains how to do something. It gives directions for the reader to

follow and the directive process analysis tells you what to do in the future

• Informative process analysis: explains how something is done by giving data (information).

The informative process analysis tells you what has occurred or what is occurring.

II. Structure of Process Analysis Paragraph

Topic sentence Topic Controlling ideas

Supporting sentences (1)

Supporting sentences (2)

Supporting sentences (3)

Supporting idea (Step 1)- (1)

Supporting idea (Step 2)- (2)

Supporting idea (Step 3)- (3)

Supporting details (1)

Supporting details (2)

Supporting details (3)

Concluding sentence Restate, summarize, predict, or suggest

III. Sample of Process Analysis Paragraph

Sample 1

How to Boil an Egg

You can cook a boiled egg properly for breakfast if you follow these four easy steps. First, get a pot big

enough to hold one egg. The egg may look dirty, so take the egg to clean before put an egg into the pot.

Then fill the pot 4/5 full of water and put in the egg. After pouring water into the port, bring right to the

kitchen. Next, turn the heat to high until the pot of the water is boiling. Boil the egg in the water in three

minutes. Last, take the egg of the port, leave its cover and put it in the egg cup, so now the egg is ready

to serve for your breakfast. In short, to boil an egg requires these four processes.

UNIT 9: CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPHS

I. Definition of Cause and Effect Paragraph

Cause and effect paragraph shows either the causes or effects of a situation. Therefore, you can write

about the:

• Causes of a situation – what makes a situation happen.

• Effects of a situation – what happens as the result of the situation.

We can write the cause and effect paragraph in two ways:

• Cause-to-Effect method – You focus on Effects

• Effect-to-Cause method – You focus on Causes

II. Techniques for Writing Cause and Effect Paragraphs

1. Cause-to-Effect Method

A. The topic sentence introduces the situation and the effects of the situation.

B. The supporting sentences support the topic sentence by explaining each effect with details.

C. Finally, the concluding sentence closes the paragraph

Sample

Road Accident

Road accident causes three main problems. First, it causes death and injury. It has become one of the

leading causes of death as it has claimed many lives so far and injured tens of people every day. Second,

it damages the personal and public properties. The damages do require repairing and compensating. In

some cases, it costs a lot of money. Those who are involved lose the time to work as well as to solve the

cases or court cases. These may last for years. In brief, ones must try their best to avoid it.

2. Effect to cause Method

A. The topic sentence introduces the situation and the causes of the situation.

B. The supporting sentences support the topic sentence by explaining each cause with details.

C. Finally, the concluding sentence closes the paragraph.

Sample

Pollution

Pollution which is one of the biggest problems facing the world today has many effects on human life.

First of all, pollution is bad for people's health. For example, smog, caused by car's exhaust fumes and

factory emissions, can lead to lung diseases in humans. Also, food and water can be polluted by

poisonous chemicals, and this can cause cancer in the people who consume them. Another effect of

pollution is the destruction of human habitat. Thus, an oil spill can make an area where people previously

lived uninhabitable. Another example is the nuclear disaster in Fukushima, Japan, which made it

impossible for people to live in a large area around the site of the explosion. Finally, pollution can also

have a negative effect on people's psychology. People who live in a clean, un-spoiled landscape like the

Swiss Alps will tend to be more positively affected by their environment than people who live in a

polluted, rubbish-strewn city such as London. To sum up, pollution has many negative effects on the

lives of humans.

UNIT 10: CLASSIFICATION PARAGRAPHS

I. Definition of Classification Paragraph

Classification paragraph organizes, or sorts people or items into categories.

II. Techniques for Writing Classification Paragraphs

1. Topic Sentence

The topic sentence presents a topic and an organizing principle - how things are classified; for

examples, they are classified by kinds, by colors, by ages, by race, etc. Example:

 Tourism can be classified into two kinds.

 There are two kinds of students in my class.

2. Supporting Sentences

Supporting sentences support the topic sentence by telling each category and examples of things in

the category. (Supporting Sentences = Categories + Examples in the categories)

Example:

A. Topic sentence: Tourism can be classified into two kinds.

B. Supporting Sentences:

a. Category 1: Domestic tourism:

Example of Category 1: Angkor Wat, Sihanoukville, island, Bokor Mountain.

b. Category

2: International tourism:

Example of Category 1: Thailand to Cambodia.

3. Concluding Sentence

The concluding sentence closes the paragraph by restating the topic sentence, summarizing the

main categories, making a prediction about the topic, or giving a suggestion about the topic.

III. Structure of Classification Paragraph

Topic sentence Topic Organizing Principle

Supporting sentences

Category 1

Category 2

Category 3

Examples in the category 1

Examples in the category 2

Examples in the category 3

Concluding sentence Restate/ Summarize/ Predict/ Suggest

IV. Sample Classification Paragraphs

Categories of Tourism

Tourism can be classified into two kinds. First, it is called domestic tourism. Domestic tourism refers to

places where we visit, but it is in our own country. For example, Angkor Wat, Sihanoukville, island,

Bokor Mountain. All of these are called domestic tourism. Second, International tourism refers to

travelling from abroad to visit other countries. For example, travelling from Thailand to Cambodia in

order to visit our own country which is called international tourism. In short, tourism can be grouped as

local and oversea tourism.

Students in My Class

There are two kinds of students in my class. First, some of them are classified into active students. These

students work hard; they rarely absent. They are proactive and organized for the class. Also, they pay

attention and are involved in class activities. Second, the rest of them are categorized as passive students.

These kinds of students do not study by heart; they are often absent. During class, they do not

really pay attention to teaching. Some even try to chat in the class. All in all, some of students are active,

while the rest are passive.