https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10 What is meant by learning? en-us 2020-08-09 14:43:29 UTC 2023-02-04 13:06:12 UTC hello@padlet.com tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673488885 Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience.
FACTS :
1- It is a process and not a product.
2- It involves all those experiences and trainings of an individual (right from birth).
3- It leades to change in behaviour for better or worse.
4- It prepares an individual for the necessary adjustments and adaptations. 
5- It is universal and continuous. Every living creature learns. ]]> 2020-08-09 14:44:26 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673488885 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673491625 1-VERBAL LEARNING
2-MOTOR LEARNING
3- CONCEPT LEARNING
4- PROBLEM SOLVING
5- SERIAL LEARNING
6- PAIR-ASSOCIATE LEARNING]]> 2020-08-09 14:54:46 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673491625 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673492803 1- BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORIES - They interpret learning in terms of association between stimulus and response. 

• TRIAL & ERROR THEORY - Edward L. Thorndike
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Ivan Pavlov
• OPERANT CONDITIONING - B.F.Skinner

2- COGNITIVE THEORIES - They belong tothe 
school of Gestalt and cognitive psychology. The interpreted learning as driven by the individuals need for purpose, insight, understanding .

• INSIGHTFUL LEARNING - Wolfgang Kohler

]]> 2020-08-09 14:59:15 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673492803 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673497529 According to Thorndike learning takes place by trial and error. Some people call it, “Learning by selection of the successful variant,” accordingly when no ready-made solution of a problem is available to the learner, he adopts the method of trial and error.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhNxeYYyCSQ

Experiment on Trial and Error Theory:
(i) Cat Experiment by Thorndike:
Thorndike put a cat is a puzzle-box with iron bars on the sides, and a door which could be opened by catching and pulling a loop which was bending above in the centre of the box. The cat, hungry for 24 hours, had the motivation of eating fish outside the box. But how to open the door? The cat made several unsuccessful attempts of biting the irons, striking head against these, and finally it was successful in pulling the loop.
Thus the experiment sums up the following stages :
1- DRIVE
2- GOAL
3- BLOCK
4- RANDOM MOVEMENTS
5- CHANCE SUCCESS
6- SELECTION
7- FIXATION
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/trial-and-error-theory-experiments-and-limitations-learning/2499]]> 2020-08-09 15:16:30 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673497529 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673509103 1- THE LAW OF READINESS- This law is indicative of learner's state to participate in the learning process. Readiness is preparation for action.
2- LAW OF EFFECT -  This law states that the learning will take place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure from it. If the learner does not get any satisfaction or meets with failure learning is blocked. It emphasizes the role of rewards and punishment in the process of learning.
3- LAW OF EXCERCISE - This law states that drill, or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning. It has 2 sub-parts as :
Law of use - With practice the modifiable connection between situation and response is strengthened.
Law of disuse - If the modifiable connection is not made between a situation and response during a length of time that connection strength is weakened.
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/thorndikes-trial-and-error-theory-learning-psychology/13469]]> 2020-08-09 15:55:24 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673509103 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673516243 1- If one wants to learn a thing, they must be quite willing to learn.
2- Whatever we want to learn , we must try to identify the things we need that are to be remembered or  forgotten.
3- Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.
4- Habits are formed as a result of repetition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.
5- In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation.]]> 2020-08-09 16:22:22 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/673516243 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677367541 According to Pavlov learning through association which he termed as 'CONDITIONING'. two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. The theory proposed that the process of classical conditioning was able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and response.

EXPERIMENT ON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
DOG EXPERIMENT : Pavlov kept one dog hungry for a few days and then tied him into the experimental table which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. Whenever the food was presented to the dog it was accompanied by the ringing of a bell. It was seen that whenever the food along with the bell was presented to the dog, there was automatic secretion of saliva. After several trials it was noticed that even when only the bell was rung without presentation of food the amount saliva secreted by the dog was same as when the food was presented. ]]> 2020-08-12 16:11:23 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677367541 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677434604 1- The first element is the natural stimulus, known as unconditioned stimulus (US) i.e food.
2- The next element is the natural response, known as UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR) i.e. salvation.
3- The third element is the artificial stimulus, known as conditioned stimulus (CS) i.e. ringing of the bell.
4- The last element is the chain of conditioning process that produces the desired response i.e salvation with the bell ringing and without the presentation of food.]]> 2020-08-12 16:47:41 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677434604 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677462397 1- ACQUISITION - is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
2- EXTINCTION - The process related with gradual disappearance of the CR on disconnecting the S-R assoiciation. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
3- SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY - is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. A learned response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of extinction. 
4- STIMULUS GENERALIZATION - is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. It is the generalized way of responding to a stimulus which is similar in nature.
5- STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION - is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. The subject learns to react differently in different situations.]]> 2020-08-12 17:01:36 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677462397 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677489203 1- Development of Attitudes:
Conditioning may help the child in breaking negative and promoting attitudes. In short, good and bad habits may be developed in the child through this method of conditioning.
2- Helpful in Adjustment:
The conditioning method helps the child in adjusting in various types of environments.
3- Helpful in Habit formation - The conditioning method can be used to develop healthy habits and removal of unhealthy habits.
4- Useful in Mental Hospitals - The mental cases and emotionally unstable children can best be treated with this process of conditioning.]]> 2020-08-12 17:16:04 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/677489203 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678391323 Skinner argued against the 'no stimulus', 'no response, mechanism. Acc. to him individuals often manipulate things in the environment with his own initiative. He came up with concept of Operant conditioning. It is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. It is also known as Instrumental Conditioning. 
He state that behaviour is shaped and maintained by it's consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its results.

EXPERIMENT ON OPERANT CONDITIONING - RAT EXPERIMENT:
Skinner made various apparatus to do his experiments that was known as 'Skinner Box''. Skinner used one hungry rat and placed it in the box. In the experiment pressing the bar in a particular fashion by the rat could result in the production of a click sound and presence of a food pallet. The click sound acted as a cue for the rat that if it goes to the food box and responds in correct fashion it will be rewarded. The lever press response having been rewarded was repeated several times. Each time the rat was rewarded for the correct response and hence it ultimately the rat learned the art of pressing the lever as desired by the experimenter.]]> 2020-08-13 07:46:40 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678391323 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678421168 Skinner defined 2 types of responses.
1- RESPONDENT BEHAVIOUR - are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily. They are elicited by a known stimuli. In this the stimulus preceding the response is responsible for causing the behaviour.
2- OPERANT BEHAVIOUR - are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. This is emitted by an unknown stimuli. In this the stimulus causing the behaviour is not important rather the consequences of behaviour are more important and the operant behaviour is controlled by the strength of the consequences.

REINFORCERS AND REINFORCEMENT - It is a kind of reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of a response re-occurring. There are 2 types :
1- Positive reinforcer- It is any stimulus the presentation of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour.

2- Negavtive reinforcer - It is any stimulus the removal of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.]]> 2020-08-13 08:36:43 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678421168 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678430734 Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.
5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.]]> 2020-08-13 08:52:57 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678430734 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678434281 It is the notion of behavior shaping through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time. To do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.
In one of his experiments for shaping he used a piegon - to teach it to walk in a figure eight. Skinner watched the piegon carefully and gave a small amount of grain whenit moved in the proper direction. So for each of the movement of the piegon such as simply turning in the right direction, then making the correct turn and so on it was given a small grain of food until it completed the figure eight.
Thus Shaping may be used as a successful technique for making individuals learn difficult and complex behvaiours.

]]> 2020-08-13 08:59:16 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/678434281 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680374192 1- The theory suggests the great potentiality of the shaping procedure for behaviour modification. Operant conditioning can be used for shaping behaviour of children by appropriate use of reinforcement or rewards.
2- Eliminating negative behaviour through extinction. When a learned response is repeated without reinforcement the strength to engage in that behaviour decreases.
3- Operant conditioning has valuable implications for reinforcement techniques in the class-room. Positive reinforcement is perhaps the most widely used behavioural technique in the school setting.
4- It lays emphasis on the importance of schedules in the process of reinforcement of the behaviour.]]> 2020-08-14 14:48:38 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680374192 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680399877 2020-08-14 15:02:39 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680399877 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680444711 Gestalt psychologist consider the process of learning as a GESTALT- an organised whole. A thing cannot be understood by study of it's constituent parts but only by study of it as a totality, is the basic idea behind this theory. They tried to interpret learning as a purposive,exploratory and creative enterprise instead of trial and error or simple stimulus-response behaviour. Gestaltist used the term 'insight' to describe perception of the whole situation by the learner and uses his intelligence in responding to the proper relationships. 

EXPERIMENT ON INSIGHTFUL LEARNING - MONKEY EXPERIMENT.
I- Kohlar kept an ape (named Sultan) hungry for some time, and then shut him in a large cage. He hung bananas from the ceiling, and kept a box on the floor of the cage, fast beneath. The monkey could not reach the banana. Another box was put in a corner of the cage. Suddenly he got an idea and used the box as a jumping platform to reach the banana's.
II- In another experiment Kohler kept two sticks in the cage. One end of the shorter sticks could be fitted in the one end of the longer sticks, so as to make them longer. The banana's were placed outside the cage and the monkey was supposed to use the sticks to get. Sultan used both the sticks one at a time but couldn't get the banana's. All of sudden he was struck by the idea to join both of the sticks and with that he was finally able to reach the banana's.]]> 2020-08-14 15:26:19 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680444711 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680503918 These experiments demonstrated the role of intelligence and cognitive abilities in highler learning such as problem solving. 
They reacted intelligently by  :
1- identifying the problem
2- organising their perceptual field
3- using insight to reach solution.

Characteristics:

Insight is the sudden grasping of the solution of the problem.

It depends upon the intellectual ability of the learner.

It is facilitated by the previous experiences.

It involves understanding and reasoning about the problem.

]]> 2020-08-14 15:55:34 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680503918 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680517383 a) EXPERIENCE- Past experiences equips an individulal to find solutions.
b) INTELLIGENCE - The solution depends upon the basic intelligence of the learner.
c) Learning situation - The way an individual responds to a situation will depend upon his perception and observation of the situation. 
d) Initial Efforts - Efforts in the simple trial and error mechanism. But this process doesn't last long it just opens the way for insightful thought.
e) Repitition and Generalization - After having an insighting solution of a particular type of problem, the organism tries to repeat it in another situation, demanding similar type of solution.

]]> 2020-08-14 16:01:50 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680517383 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680562226 1- It has made learning as a purposeful and goal oriented task.
2- The emphasis on the imporatnce of viewing the situation as a whole. It has given rise to the maxim i.e. 'whole to parts' in the process of learning.
3- It requires the organisation of the perceptual field and learning material .]]> 2020-08-14 16:23:05 UTC https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/680562226 tulika_1991 https://padlet.com/tulika_1991/98dtidjpl1i75n10/wish/690826222 The acquisition of new forms of behaviour, information, or concepts through exposure to others and the consequences they experience. Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate.

PRINCIPLES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
1- ATTENTION - In order to learn through attention one must direct his attention to appropriate models.We focus our attention on people who attract us, people who possess signs that they know what they are doing.
2- RETENTION - Our ability to retain a representation of others behaviour in memory. When we are able to retain some information then only we are able to perform in a similar way.
3- PRODUCTION PROCESSES- The ability to convert these memory representations into appropriate actions. They depend on :

• ones own physical abilities- one must have the ability to perform the behaviour.
• ones acapacity to monitor ones own performance and adjust it until it matches that of the model.

4- MOTIVATION - The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior.

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