• - Pragmatism are actions and work being done that solves a problem and produces a result. 

"...pragmatism is a philosophy that encourages people to find processes that work in order to achieve their desired ends" (Sadovnik, 2018, p. 203).

• -two forms: instrumentalism and experimentalism 

influenced school to become an 'embryonic community': here, children could learn different skills by both experimenting and through books, which would better help them prepare to live in a democratic society (Sadovnik, 2018, p. 204).

Dewey's philosophy of education had a huge impact (Sadovnik, 2018, p. 204). 

•  central concept to all following educational theories

3. Methods of Instruction

• no more formal instruction

Dewey thought that it was equally beneficial for students to learn in both groups and by themselves (Sadovnik, 2018, p. 206).

• children should make questions known of what they want to know

• all academics and vocational subjects connected in some way
• look at contemporary problems and expand off that
• always changing as society changes
• integrated curriculum provides balance

teachers should constantly enable students to be 'wide awake', engaging in activity and classwork, helping to show them they must make their own choices and stay aware of the world and constant social changes (Sadovnik, 2018, p. 208).

• teachers must be aware of the world's happenings..this is essential to teaching students how to be in touch with their own lives

"necessary condition for social improvement" (Sadovnik, 2018, p. 214)

"The growing complexity of children's behavior is reflected in the changed means they use to fulfill new tasks and the corresponding reconstruction of their psychological processes" (Cole, 1978, pg. 73)

• child development is complex in nature
• children are both internally and externally adaptive to help them overcome changes (Cole, 1978, pg. 73). 

• related to one another

• extremely important to see the learning patterns in children
• helps kids to be in charge of their own behavior

• expecting students to memorize all information

"..the assumption of a dichotomy between human beings and the world: a person is merely in the world, not with the world or with others; the individual is a spectator, not re-creator" (Freire,2005, p. 75).

• connects to education because it describes the way teachers may enter the minds of students with TRUE knowledge

"Verbalistic lessons, reading requirements, the methods for evaluating 'knowledge', the distance between the teacher and the taught, the criteria for promotion: everything in this ready-to-wear approach serves to obviate thinking" (Freire, 2005, p. 76).

• This is one of my favorite quotes- goes deep into explaining the educator's role within the banking concept
• "Problem-Posing" Education:
• this is the solution to the banking concept; the favored solution
  • students can learn from teachers, but teachers can also learn from students
  • it is a partnership and always growing

• Americans do not meet the national standard literacy rate

"..in the United States, only two thirds of our citizens are literate, and even among those the average level is too low and should be raised" (Hirsch, 1988, p. 2). 

• mastering literacy is essential for conversation 
• students must understand both general meaning and context of words (Hirsch, 1988, p. 3). 
• Talks about cultural literacy
  • What does it mean to be culturally literate?
  • solution to issue in education
  • favors knowledge-based curriculum
  • content is just as important as skill
• Issues in education: 
  • overall lack of knowledge
  • students need background knowledge to further comprehension on topics
  • 
    

•  not like the common school
• children should not feel they must stay in their seats and remain quiet
• should know difference between good and evil; this difference is vital

"we call a individual disciplined when he is master of himself, and can, therefore, regulate his own conduct when it shall be necessary to follow some rule of life" (Montessori, 1964, p. 86). 

• teacher is simply an observer in the classroom (have a completely passive role)
• children will begin to come in to who they are as people

• liberty is essential to child's life

"No one can be free unless he is independent" (Montessori, 1964, p. 95).

• our world heavily relies on others doing things for us which makes us dependent
• as teachers, we must help students to find their true independence..this does not mean to do everything for them

"We do not stop to think that the child who does not do, does not know how to do" (Montessori, 1964, p. 97).

• liberty and independence of the children will help to lead our world toward a more powerful society

• lower cognitive to higher cognitive
• helpful for teachers too when structuring lessons and assessments

"describe what can do in terms of specific, observable behaviors and communicate learning goals in clear, jargon-free language" (Stanny, 2016, p. 1).

• lower level verbs vs higher level verbs
• all words are verbs 
• necessary within lesson planning to clearly articulate what is expected of students outcomes

"Multiple types of human intelligence, each representing different ways of processing information" (Multiple Intelligences, 2016)

1. verbal-linguistic intelligence: analyze anything written or oral
2. logical-mathematical intelligence: make and solve for equations
3. visual-spatial intelligence: understanding of maps and locations
4. musical intelligence: understand sound and possible meaning from it
5. naturalistic intelligence: understanding things in nature such as plants, animals, and other surroundings
6. bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: understanding how to use your body for learning
7. interpersonal intelligence: understanding when other people are in a particular mood and why that might be
8. intrapersonal intelligence: recognize feelings and mood within oneself

• There is a difference between multiple intelligences and learning styles:
  • Is there a such thing as a learning style?
  • Content that must be learned is linked to students learning style
• Can be used in the classroom 
  • Teachers can take notice of how particular students learn and then incorporate that into lessons

• no matter the teacher, there were always 8 specific elements

• Lesson Design
• Target Teaching
• Critical Teaching

• Anticipatory Set: May tie in a previous lesson with a current lesson in order to heighten student attention
• Objective and Purpose: Both teachers and students should have a clear idea of what is to come and what is expected..this will allow things to go more smoothly
• Input: The knowledge which will be brand new and learned to the students in the best way possible
• Modeling: teachers should be demonstrating an activity so that the students can better understand it
• Checking for understanding: Ask the students if they've understood/ if they have questions about the material/if they need clarification on something
• Guided Practice: Students should practice their new skill or new information with teacher supervision
• Independent Practice: Students should then practice their new skill on their own using their new learned knowledge
• Closure: Teachers should end the class with closure by asking students to reiterate what they have learned, maybe asking for examples or a demo
• (The Madeline Hunter Model of Mastery Learning)

1. Stage 1: Identify desired results: transfer of learning
   1. Think of essential questions
2. Stage 2: Determine Assessment Evidence
3. Stage 3: Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction

• Referred to as the "backward design"

• may not be possible to use all facets at once
• preparing students for high-stakes test when it does not include essay type responses (only select-response)
• textbooks are important in a classroom, but the teacher should not have to cover page by page with students (McTighe and Wiggins)
• Essential Questions: questions which are important in the classroom because they can...
  • spark new questions
  • deepen understanding
  • one you can keep asking about/returning to
  • help students understand themselves better as learners
  • example: What makes someone more privileged?
    • Can be many answers depending on a person's perspective
• Factual Questions: 
  • questions that have one answer
  • example: What is 2+2? 
    • Only answer can be 4