1. smooth muscle
2. cardiac muscle
3. skeletal muscle

1) Active transport

2) Passive transport 

~ Brief infiltration
~ Infiltration helps
~ Osmosis

• Scientists & Contributions
• The principles of cell theory

• Define Prokaryotic cell & Eukaryotic cell

• to bind and support other tissue in the body
• fills the space between organ and tissue 
• provide structural for other tissue and organ 

1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Compact bone
3. Blood

•   Movement of a substance from higher to lower concentration gradient across phospholipid bilayer
• Does not require energy
• Without help of transport protein

• Lipid soluble molecules(Vitamin A, D, cholesterol)
• Small, uncharged molecule(oxygen gas)
• Small, polar molecules(water, glycerol)

• Temperature increase
• Large concentration gradient difference(eg: outside has higher concentration than inside)
• Molecules in gas state rather than liquid
• Smaller size of molecule
  
  

b. Characteristics of cells or tissues that carry out active transport :

~ High cellular respiration rate
~ A large number of mitochondria
~ High ATP concentrations

~ The sodium-potassium pump removes sodium ions out of the cell. This pump, collects potassium ions into the cell from the external environment

~ 3 sodium ions in the cytoplasm are bound to the active site of the carrier protein

~ ATP is hydrolyzed, causing the carrier protein to deform and sodium ions to be transported out to resist the gradient

~ 2 potassium ions are bound to the active site of the carrier protein from the outside

~ The phosphate group is released from the carrier protein causing it to change shape to its original shape

~ 2 potassium ions are transported into the cytoplasm to counteract the gradient

~ Sodium-potassium pumps play an important role in the transfer of nerve impulses to nerve cell membranes

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
3. All cells come from preexisting cell

1. DNA is passed between cells during cell division .
2.  The cells of all organisms within a similar species are mostly the same, both structurally and chemically.
3. Energy flow occurs within cells.

• DNA is not  associated with histone protein

• DNA is associated with histone protein

• No nucleus at maturity (dead cells)
• Has primary and secondary cell walls
• Secondary cell wall is evenly thickened with lignin
• Small lumen 
• Pits are present in cell walls
• Cells are tightly packed / no intercellular space

• Gives support to the tissue 
• Gives mechanical strength and rigidity to the plant
• Protect from mechanical damage

1. Leaf veins / vascular bundle
2. Wood, inner bark

• Polygonal-shaped
• Elongated with tapered ends
• Which overlap and interclock with one another (increase strength)
• Fewer pits than sclereids
• Eg:jute fibers for making rope

• Irregular-shaped
• Shorter than fibers
• Unevenly thickened with lignin
• Pits may branched or not
• Cells with unbranched pits ~ stone cells

• Cilia are hair-like structures that can beat in synchrony causing the movement of unicellular paramecium. Cilia are also found in specialize linings in eukaryotes. For example, cilia sweep fluids past stationary cells in the lining of trachea and tubes of female oviduct.
• Flagella are whip-like appendages that undulate to move cells. They are longer than cilia, but have similar internal structures made of microtubules. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella differ greatly.
• Both flagella and cilia have a 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules. This arrangement refers to the 9 fused pairs of microtubules on the outside of a cylinder, and the 2 unfused microtubules in the center. Dynein "arms" attached to the microtubules serve as the molecular motors. Dynein is a family of cytoskeletal motor proteins that move along microtubules in cells. They convert the chemical energy stored in ATP to mechanical workDefective dynein arms cause male infertility and also lead to respiratory tract and sinus problems.   

~ Endocytosis includes :

- pinocytosis (cell drinking)
- phagocytosis (cell nutrition)

~ The process of phagocytosis :

1. Microbes attach to phagocytes
2. Phagocytes form pseudopodiums that ingest microbes
3. Phagocytic vesicles contain antigens. Phagocytic vesicles unite with lysosomes
4. Microbes are killed by enzymes in phagolisosomes
5. Microbial residues are removed through exocytosis

~ The process of pinocytosis :

1) It is covered by a macrophage membrane by the contraction of the actin-myosin system, and enters a vesicle called a phagosome
2) Once the phagosomes become acidic, some macrophage lysosomes will be induced and form fusion to release enzymes, proteins to degrade pathogens
3) The fusion between phagosomes and macrophage granules is called phagolisosomes with an intracellular antomicrobial response
4) Degradation can be done using oxygen or without oxygen

The process of ecocytosis:

~ Vesicles are transported to the cell membrane along the microtubules of the cytoskeleton
~ Upon reaching the cell membrane, the vesicles connect and are pulled in contact with the cell membrane
~ Docking involves the connection of the vesicle membrane with the cell membrane. The phospholipid layers of the vesicle membrane and the cell membrane begin to coalesce
~ Priming is a signaling process that triggers exocytosis
~ The energy required to separate and fuse lipid membranes comes from ATP. Membrane fusion produces fusion pores, which allow the contents of the vesicles to be removed when the vesicles become part of the cell membrane
~ In kiss-and-run fusion, temporary vesicles fuse with the cell membrane long enough to form fusion pores and release their contents to the outside of the cell
~ The vesicles then withdraw from the cell membrane and undergo renewal before returning to the inside of the cell

• a type of connective tissue that contain collagen and calcium phosphate
  
  

• Microscopic unit of compact bone is called an osteon or Haversian system 
• Each osteon composed of concentric ring called lamella
• Running down the center of each osteon is the center small canal or Haversian canal which contain blood vessels, lymphatic vessels. These vessels branch off through a perforating canal known as Volkmann's canals
• The bone cell known as osteocytes are located inside lacunae 
• Lacunae are found at borders of adjacent of lamella
• Osteocytes can receive nutrients and waste through canaliculi

1. Give body shape and provide framework to support
2. Act as reservoir for calcium and phosphorus
3. Support and protect internal organ

• is a form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely packed collagenous fibrous in rubbery gelatinous substances called chondrin or chondroitin sulphate
• Cartilage is covered by a dense fibrous membrane called perichondrium. The perichondrium is responsible for the growth and maintenance of the cartilage
• The skeleton of sharks and human embryos are composed of cartilage
• Cartilage provide flexible support for certain structure in adult human. The most common cartilage is hyaline cartilage
  
  

• Forms the articular surface of long bones,the rib tips,the rings of the trachea and part of the skull
• It also occur under the skin for instance ear and nose and on many joint surfaces
  
  

• The primary cell types are chondrocytes. 
• Chondrocytes located in space called lacunae
• Chondrocytes rely on diffusion to obtain nutrients 
• Unlike bone, cartilage is a vascular meaning there are no blood vessels to carry blood to cartilage tissue

• The smooth surface provides a sliding area which reduces friction

• Responsible for the growth of bone in the neck regions of long bones

• erythrocytes (red blood cells)
• leucocytes (white blood cells)
• platelets

1. Plasma makes up 50-60% of the total blood volume
2. Plasma is the medium of transport for blood cells and other substances throughout the body
3. It is a yellowish , straw-colour liquid consisting of more than 90% water.The 10% of the plasma consists of dissolved substances such as organic substance, inorganic, salts, dissolved gases, plasma proteins (fibrinogen, albumin and globulin) and antibodies
   
   

• Transport oxygen and nutrients to body cells
• Transport waste product from body cells to the kidneys to be excreted
• The white blood cells protect the body against harmful pathogens

• Erythrocytes are the most numerous type of blood
• Each red blood cells contain hemoglobin
• Do not have a nucleus , mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum when mature

•  Highly specialized for transporting  oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and carbon dioxide as a waste product , away from the tissues and back to lungs. 

• Small in size, round and biconcave disc shape  in which the edge of the disc is thicker than the centre.
• It's biconcave shape provides high ratio of surface area volume, allowing efficient diffusion of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide into and out of cell
• Erythrocytes are reddish in colour due to their high content of the iron-protein complex called hemoglobin. Haemoglobin allow erythrocytes to bind with oxygen
  
  

• Erythrocytes produced within the red bone marrow of certain bone

•  Protect body against illness and disease from bacteria and other microorganisms.
•  They flow through your bloodstream to fight viruses, bacteria that threaten your health. 

• a cellular component of the blood that lacks hemoglobin, has a nucleus and mitochondria is capable of motility, and defends the body against infection and disease.
• Lack of pigment hemoglobin
  
  

• the bone marrow and found in the blood and lymph tissue. 

• are characterized by large lobed nuclei and distinctive granules in their cytoplasm
• There are three type:

1. Neutrophil
2. Basophil
3. Eosinophil
   
   

• Lack large distinctive granules and their nuclei are rounded or kidney shape.
•  Types: Lymphocyte and  Monocyte

• Possess an infolding plasma membrane which increases SA:Vol ratio to allow for more material exchange
• Have many mitochondria to fuel the active transport of materials between the sieve tube and the source or sink
• Contain appropriate transport proteins within the plasma membrane to move materials into or out of the sieve tube

• This is because the sieve element cells have no nuclei and fewer organelles (to maximise flow rate)
• Plasmodesmata exist between sieve elements and companion cells in relatively large numbers
• These connect the cytoplasm of the two cells and mediate the symplastic exchange of metabolites