https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi en-us 2022-04-23 18:38:00 UTC 2025-12-30 17:51:06 UTC hello@padlet.com sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2154830146

]]> 2022-04-23 19:05:45 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2154830146 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2154858746      Georg von Bekesy lived from 1899-1972 and won the Nobel Prize in 1961 for Physiology after his discover of the ways in which physical sound is understood by our cochlea, part of the inner ear¹.
      Georg received his early education in Munich, Constantinople, Budapest and in a private school in Zurich². He then studied chemistry at the University of Berne and then after serving in the military for a while went on to receive his PhD in Physics².
      He did research at a Hungarian telephone system research laboratory as well as a few different large institution such as the University of Budapest, the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, and Harvard University¹.
     It had been known that the vibratory tissue most important for hearing is the basilar membrane since the mid-19th century¹. The basilar membrane reached the length of the snail-shaped cochlea and split into two tunnels¹. Bekesy used this known information to find out how sound worked and how we were able to perceive this information¹. He discovered that sound travels in waves through the basilar membrane¹. Meaning, that the sound would peaks at different places along the basilar membrane to indicate the frequency of the sound¹.
Additionally, he discovered that loudness and pitch of a sound is largely determined by the location of the nerve receptors and the number of receptors¹. These discoveries would become crucial in the attempt to treat and cure hearing loss.

1. https://emur.org/medicine/georg-von-bekesy.htm
2.https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1961/bekesy/biographical/
3.https://braintour.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/img_TT_bekesy_portrait1.jpg]]> 2022-04-23 20:14:56 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2154858746 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156487181      The earliest known complete set of the the bones that make up the middle ear are dated back to a 2.0 million year old skull¹. This skull belonged to a distant human relative found in South Africa known as Paranthropus robustus¹.
     There is no evidence that they were studying these bones but it is the first time a discovery of these bones intact had been found. These bones help us to understand how our human hearing has evolved over time. Researchers have found that the malleus, one of the three ear bones, of P.Robustus to be very similar to the one in modern day humans¹. However, the other two bones were reportedly closer in relation to African and Asian great apes¹.
     Consequently, they believe the reason for the malleus being more closely related to modern day human ear bones can correlate to our special sensitivity to the middle range acoustics frequencies which is very important for the development of spoken language¹.

1. https://www.science.org/content/article/scienceshot-earliest-ear-bones-sound-human-hearing]]> 2022-04-25 13:05:03 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156487181 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156622015      English natural philosopher, Benjamin Martin and a French Surgeon by the name of Claude-Nicolas Le Cat publish work on the auditory physiology and function¹.
     Le Cat's published work provides original engravings of the ear's anatomy¹. Le Cat's treaties came directly from his surgical work in the elite intellectual world of the corporative mid-eigteenth century surgical establishment¹. His main drawing is a startlingly realistic three-dimensional cross-sectional image of the whole ear mechanism¹.
     Benjamin Martin used the ear as a part of a scientific demonstration¹. Martin had a successful career and business with eyeglasses established in 1755, so the hearing science was an addition to his image¹. Martin presented music as the lynchpin of rational hearing science opposed to a mathematical by-product of man's sensory nature¹. Martin used Le Cat's drawing of "The Organ of Hearing on the Right Side" in his own treaties¹.
     Both Le Cat and Martin's interpretations of hearing functions included that the cochlea was the most important element of the ear mechanism that contributed heavily to the perception of sound¹. There is a debate still whether the hearing science emerged as a discipline from England and France¹. Le Cat nor Martin was simply a "hearing scientist"¹. They both worked under broader domains of medicine and natural philosophy. Hearing science was a neglected subject of the time¹.

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3182046/]]> 2022-04-25 14:10:49 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156622015 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156645687      Francis Bacon has an enormous impact on English natural philosophers¹. He wanted to replace the Aristotelian physics system with his own new system¹. Through his works he believed that his duties as a natural philosopher began by understanding the roles of the senses and perceiving all external phenomena¹.
     The next thing he had to do was move away from traditional Aristotelian ways and move towards the new pansophic and utopian theories where he will use technology for the benefit of mankind¹. Francis bacon did not just want to understand how the production, behavior, and direction of sound work but also to understand the properties of sound in order to help the wellbeing of humans¹. They could in-turn possibly help the range of hearing and use these properties in the development of communication, which will later be seen in the telephone¹.
Bacon has two works in which he gives his complete account on his acoustic and sound theories. His first is Sylva Sylvarum (1626) and the New Atlantis (1626) which were very popular with a lot of influence on the seventeenth century¹. In his work of the New Atlantis he dismissed the ideas of the Pythagorean dead, that the numbers 1 to 4 and their ratios underlie the structure of the universe including sounds in music². Instead he suggested that music was a "sonorous phenomenon of nature" which would be perceived by the senses and not mathematically².  Now that this principles of numbers giving guidelines to the universe was challenged, there would be a lot more realities that would be uncovered without the governing elements². This would completely change how the science of sound would be studied in the future.




1. Gouk, Penelope. “Vol. 36, No. 2 (Feb., 1982), Pp. 155-175 (21 Pages).” Acoustics in the Early Royal Society 1660-1680.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/531772?seq=1
2.http://www.thomaspatteson.com/uploads/7/3/8/8/7388316/sound_between_magic_and_science_-_toward_an_understanding_of_early_modern_aurality.pdf]]> 2022-04-25 14:22:50 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156645687 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156831983 Mersenne was very fascinated by the humans brain and its musical appreciations. He correlated this appreciations to being attuned to mathematical harmonies¹. The difference between Mersenne and Bacon was that he not only proposed these ideas but conducted experiments to test his proposals. His proposals took a more radical Pythagorean stance on musical science, relating his knowledge more on acoustic experiments². Mersenne studies the vibrational stitched strings which would be summarized in his three Mersenne's Laws³. One of his experiments was one of the first experiment to attempt to measure the speed of sound². Mersenne is credited with discovering the second and third law of strings². The work he published was in Mershenne's Harmonicorum Libri(1636)¹.

1. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mersenne/
2.http://english.ioa.cas.cn/psk/201410/t20141027_130145.html
3. https://www.britannica.com/science/acoustics/Early-experimentation
4. https://www.lindahall.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2020/09/mersenne1.jpg]]> 2022-04-25 15:52:51 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156831983 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156869713       Research done by the Washington University School of Medicine took 76 children from 23 different states¹. Each child received a cochlear implant between their 1st and 3rd birthday (+-2 months)¹.
      This purpose of this study was to determine if getting an implantation at a younger age contributed to their language development¹. Additionally, they sought to see if it was realistic for children with severe hearing loss to receive a cochlear implant and an oral language method of education to achieve age appropriate language development during the preschool years¹.
      What they found was that children who did receive cochlear implantations prior to a substantial delay in spoken language development were more likely to achieve age-appropriate spoken language¹. Advanced technology has given us the opportunity to implement a universal newborn hearing screening program and technology to improve the hearing experience for all¹. For families of the 90% of deaf children who have no previous experience with deafness and whose native languages are expressed primarily through speech this a huge accomplishment and advancement¹. Cochlear implantations have been around for a few centuries now but this new research showing its benefit from proactive action has shown improvements on language development at an earlier age¹.
     I chose this artifact as it related to the neuroscience of hearing and the hearing mechanism that I chose to make this mini-museum centered around. This research development show how our technology can not only change someones life but also improve their quality of life. For some parents, hearing that their child is deaf or hard of hearing it may be a scary reality for them so having ways that this can be detected early to help ensure quality of life is a very promising course of treatment for those who are detected early. Of course, those in the deaf and hard of hearing community should embrace their differences as well! Technology of today does not change

1. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/073)]]> 2022-04-25 16:10:01 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2156869713 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157432264 2022-04-25 22:42:07 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157432264 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157451450       In the year of 1943 a man by the name of C.C. Bunch published a paper which included his first prototype pf an audiometer². An audiometer is a machine that evaluates hearing acuity². C.C. Bunch was a graduate student in psychology at the University of Iowa in 1919, when a famous Seashore Musical Aptitude test intrigued Bunch to make a piece of equipment that measure the threshold of frequencies³.
Bunch did not just create the device for other to use, he also used the device on patients at the local otolaryngologist³. His reports and all his studies were documented in his clinical audiometry that includes the development and his use of the audiometer as well as countless audiograms¹.
All of this work is to later contribute into how we analyze what sound is and how it works and how we can control sound for the benefit of human beings and those who may be suffering from a hearing loss or deafness. This would go into helping us understand language and how different sounds come across differently to a listener.

1. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.99.2578.431.c
2. https://www.audiology.org/news-and-publications/audiology-today/articles/c-c-bunch-the-first-audiologist/
3.https://hearingreview.com/practice-building/practice-management/continuing-education/ten-highlights-history-audiology]]> 2022-04-25 23:06:50 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157451450 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157452628     During World War 2 the head of the army gave Captain Raymond Carhart the appointment to the head of the acoustic division at Deshon General Hospital¹. They were treating and rehabilitating personnel who had come home with hearing loss and were giving out hearing aids to the army^1.
     There were no guidelines as to how and who should be given a hearing aid and Carhart, a a trained speech scientist, did not feel satisfied with this. He went on to look into the technical engineering of the hearing aids in hope to find a way to selectively amplify things instead of just helping the patients on daily communication¹. Carhart created a way to understand what a hearing aid users could understand as speech¹. He did this by the speech reception threshold(SRT)¹. This became instrumental for how they would understand the patient and what their capabilities consisted of¹. Carhart used his speech oriented approach as he evaluated and dispensed hearing aids to all of 16,000 men who were coming home from war¹.
    These hearing aids were not going help a tremendous amount for a lot of the veterans however, the most crucial part of this story is the understanding of thresholds in which our ears can hear. There are different capabilities that naturally occur but having a way to measure these capabilities come from research of how the sounds are made.


1. https://hearingreview.com/practice-building/practice-management/continuing-education/ten-highlights-history-audiology
2. https://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large-5/raymond-carhart-national-library-of-medicine.jpg]]> 2022-04-25 23:07:56 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157452628 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157484633       The First Vacuum Tube was introduced in 1904 by a British engineer by the name of John Ambrose Fleming who created the thermionic valve¹. Even though the Supreme Court declined his patent since they believed this technology was already known, he is still recognized as the inverter of the vacuum tube and diode which had two electrodes that would go way beyond what he had ever imagined¹.
     Later the discovery of the triode by Lee DeFrost would also contribute to the keys to amplification and hearing aids specifically². The electron flow by is controlled by a varying grid voltage which in turn is called amplification². The smaller sizes of these and the lower current consumptions led to development of smaller batteries and smaller hearing aids².
     Understanding this type of technology is crucial to understand how it can be used for the benefit of human beings. If we understand how to amplify sound and do this on an electronic scale it would be a lot more precise and effective for the patients. Additionally this will later impact the technologies that evolve to help the deaf or hard of hearing community.


1. https://www.wired.com/2009/11/1116fleming-thermionic-valve-vacuum-tube/
2. https://hearinghealthmatters.org/waynesworld/2014/hearing-aid-technology-evolution/ ]]> 2022-04-25 23:47:17 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157484633 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157499867      Miller Reese Hutchinson was interested in mechanics and technology since the beginning of when he attended mobil public school¹. He graduated with a doctorate in Electrical Engineering at Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn¹. While he was a student he hoped to benefit a friend who was deaf and mute from childhood bout with scarlet fever¹.
This led him to study hearing at Alabama  Medical College and work hard for four years doing research to develop his technology¹. His invention was one of the first know portable electrical hearing aid which he called the "Akouphone"¹. Hutchinson was able to improve his friends hearing very successfully but unfortunately his friend was not able to speak after multiple attempts.
As the time went on this became a state of the art piece of equipment with only a limited number of them being produced until it was able to be produced and sold at $60 which at the time was still very expensive¹. This instrument became very crucial and also the only available instrument that could amplify the sound which was also wearable which made it convenient1. Hutchinson received a patent in 1898 for his creation¹. The way the hearing aid worked was that it amplified the sound for the person¹.
This would later be a very big contribution to further research to help accelerate advancements for the deaf or hard of hearing community. These devices would be another way for these individuals to be apart of the community and not feel so outcasted by society.


1.https://hearinghealthmatters.org/hearinginternational/2015/the-road-to-the-first-electric-portable-hearing-aid-and-beyond/
2. https://hearinghealthmatters.org/hearinginternational/files/2015/07/mrh2.jpg]]> 2022-04-26 00:03:08 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157499867 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157612314      Aristotle and his suggestion of sound wave propagation back in the 4th century B.C. did come in handy when Robert Boyle went to conduct his experiments¹. Robert Boyle was an Anglo-Irish scientist, who had worked with the vacuum technology to improved it capabilities¹. He had improve it so much to the point where he could observe sound intensity decreasing virtually to nothing as all of the air is removed¹.
     Boyle concluded that such phenomenas was a result of the lack of medium for sound to track upon cause the decrease and elimination of sound¹. Boyle concluded that air is required for sound wave transmission¹. This essentially helped us to understand that sound was traveling as a wave rather than a singular particle which would be crucially to the later technological advancements with sound technology.
     We can further understand how we perceived sound by understanding how the sound is created and travels. Even though there were other contributing factors that effected the outcome of the sound and the way Boyle had perceived its at the time his understanding was still correct.



1. https://www.britannica.com/science/acoustics/Early-experimentation
2. https://www.sciencehistory.org/sites/default/files/styles/distillations_modern_issue_cover_phone/public/robert_boyle_engraving.jpg?itok=fKYitO0Y&timestamp=1620910002]]> 2022-04-26 01:23:03 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157612314 sophiatheodorous https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157717618 There is a big debate over who was the actual inventor of the radio as the patent application of Tesla was made in 1897 and they were granted in 1900¹. However, Marconi's first patent went out in America in 1900 which was turned down¹.
     However, more important the establishment and discovery of the radio was a Hugh. milestone in the sound technology community. Tesla created coils that would receive and transmit powerful radio signals  when they were tuned to resonate at the same frequency¹. The full function of a radio started with changing sounds or signals into radio waves². These waves travel through air, space, and solid objects and the receiver on the radio has the ability to change the waves back o sounds, words, and the music that we hear².
     It is a crazy phenomena to think about that we experience every day almost without thought. The understanding of sound and how it is transmitted is a major contributor in the creation of this radio. Additionally it helps to understand how these sounds can be changed and transmitted back and forth in a reasonable method. Radios truly set the groundwork for a lot more communication systems involving transmission and reception of sounds.

1.https://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_whoradio.html
2. https://www.knowitall.org/document/history-radio-kids-work
3. https://image.jimcdn.com/app/cms/image/transf/dimension=origxorig:format=jpg/path/s40c423127565d23a/image/ifcc75f8f6dddebc3/version/1401406283/image.jpg ]]> 2022-04-26 02:46:49 UTC https://padlet.com/sophiatheodorous/8lteww9dqm7uibyi/wish/2157717618