What is the subject matter and iconography?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 20, Renaissance Art in Fifteenth-Century Italy, "The Early Renaissance in Florence"

According to Stokstad and Cothren, in 1401, the city of Florence held a competition to see which artists would create the best relief works for the doors of the Florence Baptistry. The two finalists were Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, who created vastly different pieces which represented the Biblical story of Abraham sacrificing his son, Isaac. Where Brunelleschi's was "..powerful and dramatic.", Ghiberti's was "..Suave and Graceful..". Both pieces are rich with iconography, including the altar on which Isaac is kneeling, the angel swooping down to stop Abraham, the ram, and the knife in Abraham's hands. All of the symbolism in this piece is intended to convey the power of faith. Abraham believes so deeply that he is in the right that he is willing to kill his son. Isaac is bravely accepting his fate, and the angel, swooping in to stop Abraham, is demonstrating the rewards of faith.

What is the style?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 20, Renaissance Art in Fifteenth-Century Italy, "The Early Renaissance in Florence"

Ghiberti's work is presented in the quintessential style of the early Italian Renaissance. In the textbook, it is stated that Ghiberti's work is a "...Harmonious pairing of son and father..." and Isaac represents a "..fully idealized classical figure exuding calm composure.". At this time, Renaissance art was beginning to blend Christian storytelling with Classical Greco-Roman stylistic imagery. Isaac is represented not as a child but as a muscular young man who is stoically accepting his fate, while Abraham is depicted as following the will of God with steely determination.

Who was the original, historical audience for this artwork? How did the subject and style satisfy their desires? How did it fit their historical values and way of life?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 20, Renaissance Art in Fifteenth-Century Italy, "The Early Renaissance in Florence"

Dr. Elizabeth Gand, Diablo Valley College, Course: History of Medieval / Renaissance Art (196 SP24) Module: The Early Renaissance in Italy, "The Wool Merchants' Competition: Brunelleschi versus Ghiberti"

According to Dr. Gand the artwork that was created through the competition was judged by the Wool Merchant's Guild of Florence, Italy, before being declared a "winner" and receiving the contract for the Florence Baptistry's doors. Ghiberti's win is notable because it demonstrates multiple points: first, the influence of the classical era on Early Renaissance art, Second, the fact the Catholic Church came to accept certain styles of art over other styles, and finally, the preference that the Catholic Church and other Christian organizations showed for the glorification of Biblical stories over realistic depictions.

What is the Subject Matter and Iconography?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 19, Fifteenth Century Art in Northern Europe, "The Ghent Altarpiece"

One of the most famous artworks of Jan van Eyck's life, the Ghent Altarpiece is a large and complex theological piece that was commissioned for a chapel in the Cathedral of Saint Bavo, in Ghent. The altarpiece has significant amounts of iconography, including the central figure, God, who is an icon themselves, adorned in red robes of office, wearing a papal crown symbolizing His dominion over Heaven, and with an Earthly crown at His feet, symbolizing His dominion over Earth. God is surrounded with even more symbolism, with Adam and Eve on the edge of the piece to either side of Him, the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist by his side, and musical angels. Below God is a unified landscape symbolizing the natural beauty of Earth, with a vast array of religious figures praying to the Lamb of God. Overall, the symbolism points to one conclusion: that God is powerful over all realms of humanity, including Heaven and Earth.

What is the style?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 19, Fifteenth Century Art in Northern Europe, "The Ghent Altarpiece"

According to Stokstad and Cothren, the piece displays "..remarkable surface realism..", "..luminous details of textures..", and "..three-dimensional mass..". Van Eyck was able to truly create something amazing with the realistic style he used in this piece. The size of the piece, over 15 feet tall, allows for realistic proportions on the bodies of the figures represented, and for gratuitous amounts of detail. The most detailed figures are Adam and Eve, who each show anatomically realistic bodies, with Adam having a "farmer's tan" and Eve showing a pigmented line on her stomach which "..appears frequently during pregnancy." Overall, the style of this piece focuses on ultra-realism, detail, and bringing God to life for the audience.

Who was the original, historical audience for this artwork? How did the subject and style satisfy their desires? How did it fit their historical values and way of life?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 19, Fifteenth Century Art in Northern Europe, "The Ghent Altarpiece"

The original audience would have been the congregation of St Bavo's Cathedral, however, the patron of the piece, Jodocus Vijd, would have had to approve its final form first. It is clear van Eyck did much to please Vijd, who had ".. daily masses in the chapel for the salvation of himself..", and even represented him on the outside panels of the altarpiece. The artwork "..became a famous work of art almost as soon as it was completed.", and the citizens of Ghent, as well as the patron, were pleased by its life-like, terrestrial, grounded representation of God and His flock. This piece fit the values of the people of Ghent by bringing them attention as devout followers of Catholicism, glorifying the Catholic Church, giving notoriety to the city, and attracting famous and wealthy nobles who wanted to see the piece. This piece is an excellent example of religious art in Northern Europe before the Protestant Reformation.

What is the subject matter and iconography?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 21, Sixteenth Century Art in Italy, "Veronese and Tintoretto"

According to Stokstad and Cothren, the subject matter of the painting "..seems to be primarily its architectural setting and only secondarily Christ seated at the table." Despite the seemingly odd setting, Veronese intended for this work to display the Last Supper, in which Jesus told his disciples that one had betrayed him and he would die soon. The scene Veronese presented was rich with iconography, including Jesus himself, seated center stage, the twelve apostles, Jesus' first followers, food and wine, a symbol of the Last Supper, and onlookers who symbolize the willingness of Jesus to associate with many walks of life.

What is the style?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 21, Sixteenth Century Art in Italy, "Veronese and Tintoretto"

Veronese used a realistic style when painting this piece, and was able to display people from all walks of life in life-like poses across the image. Utilizing the "..color, light, and expressively loose brushwork.." typical of Venetian painters, Veronese was able to include details like dark skinned foreigners, the fur of cats and dogs, shaggy beards, and expressive faces. The painting also plays into light and shadow, with figures placed toward the edges and rear of the image seeming to fade into shadow, sunlight realistically entering the space as if it is in nature, and an interaction between light and the painted architectural elements shown. Meanwhile, color is also at play. Many figures in the painting are wearing bright and expressive outfits, poly-chrome stonework is depicted in the columns, and a marvelous city in white marble is placed behind the feast.

Who was the original, historical audience for this artwork? How did the subject and style satisfy their desires? How did it fit their historical values and way of life?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 21, Sixteenth Century Art in Italy, "Veronese and Tintoretto"

The reaction of the intended audience for this piece is why it is on this list. The historical audience for this artwork, the monks of the Dominican monastery, saw the piece as having profane distractions from the Last Supper, and told the Inquisition about the painting. The Inquisition was formed as part of the Catholic Counter Reformation, and was one of the reasons that artists were stifled in their creativity and inventiveness after the Protestant Reformation. The contemporary viewers had no issues with Veronese's style of paint, with many paintings of this time being depicted as more realistic, but they had issues with his creative choices, including adding "..parrots, monkeys, a man picking his teeth, and foreign soldiers..", all of which were seen as distracting from the religious events taking place. While Veronese was eventually cleared by changing the name of the art, the fact he was called before the Inquisition in the first place shows the low tolerance for creativity present in the Catholic Church at this period of time.

What is the subject matter and iconography?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 22, Sixteenth Century Art in Northern Europe and the Iberian Peninsula, "Return of the Hunters"

The subject of this painting can be interpreted three ways, first, the viewer can consider the returning hunters the subject due to their placement in the foreground and the name of the painting. However, Stokstad and Cothren argue that "..the landscape, rather than the figures, seems to be the principal subject.". Finally, another argument can be made that the true subject Bruegel is attempting to show is the difficulty of life for the commoner during the winter. Iconography in this painting is primarily found in the symbols of every day life. The hunters carry a meager catch, representative of their wintertime struggle, and their shoulders are hunched in defeat. Meanwhile, in the valley below, ice skaters play tag, hockey, and curling, representative of the fun side of life and the duality of fun and defeat. Finally, the numerous birds, tracks in the snow, and wilting plants symbolize the natural world around the village depicted, and provides further insight into the impacts of winter not only on the people shown, but their natural environment.

What is the style?

Sources: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 22, Sixteenth Century Art in Northern Europe and the Iberian Peninsula, "Return of the Hunters"

Dr. David Boffa, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Hunters in the Snow (Winter). Article for annotation accessed through Class 196 Unit V Module 3.

The style of the painting is typically interpreted as a genre scene. It is rendered realistically, with detailed foliage, people, and animals. Despite the realism of the painting, Dr. Boffa states "..this is not an image from reality: there is no such landscape in the Netherlands..". This leads to a painting that is a carefully constructed scene which results from all of Bruegel's travels in the previous years of his life. Overall, in Dr. Boffa's estimation, the painting takes on a "..certain idyllic quality.." in the portrayal of life, a feat it accomplishes through realism, detail, and lifelike vibrancy.

Who was the original, historical audience for this artwork? How did the subject and style satisfy their desires? How did it fit their historical values and way of life?

Sources: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 22, Sixteenth Century Art in Northern Europe and the Iberian Peninsula, "Return of the Hunters"

Dr. David Boffa, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Hunters in the Snow (Winter). Article for annotation accessed through Class 196 Unit V Module 3.

The painting was commissioned by a wealthy banker named Niclaes Jongelinck. Originally, it would have been in his collection only, as part of a set of six seasonal paintings created by Bruegel to help mark the passage of time. The subject and style of the work would have satisfied the desires of the patron because it showed several subjects of interest to them, first, the passage of time into the winter season, second, nature, and finally, how the lower classes lived. Historically, this painting was created during the religious turmoil of the 16th century in Northern Europe. The Iconoclastic Protestants had clashed heavily with the Catholics, who demanded purity in their works through an inquisition that could essentially do what it saw fit. In historical context, the move to secular artworks made sense for both the artists and patrons, as it would limit the potential issues caused by their art in a religiously contentious and conflicted time.

What is the subject matter and iconography?

Source: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 21, Sixteenth Century Art in Italy, "The Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel"

Dr. Elizabeth Gand, Diablo Valley College, Course: History of Medieval / Renaissance Art (196 SP24) Unit V Module 1: The 1500s: A Peak Moment and A Breaking Apart, "Michelangelo, Pope Julius II, and the Sistine Ceiling"

The Sistine Chapel ceiling was commissioned to Michelangelo by Pope Julius II. It is one of the most iconic and recognizable works of art in history. The subject matter is essentially the story of God's relationship with humanity as seen through the Book of Genesis. In accordance with the subject, almost every piece of Christian iconography can be seen in the piece, which is divided into paneled sections. A notable example of symbology is the panel Creation of Adam, which depicts God giving Adam the spark of life. On this panel, God is represented as an old man, surrounded by a coterie of angels, putti, and wreathed in a ethereal red cloth. Adam, meanwhile, is represented "As if to echo the biblical text, Adam's heroic body, outstretched arm, and profile almost mirror those of God, in whose image he has been created". Adam is represented in a manner that notably demonstrates the Greco-Roman influences on Italian art, and serves to symbolize the bond between humans and God. While Creation of Adam is emblematic of the main story scenes, the prophets lining them, like Ezekiel, are purposely designed to be represented in motion. Though there is not much symbology other than the scroll Ezekiel holds and the color of his robes, the motion portrayed in his body, the emotion on his face, and the intensity of his gaze tell the viewer that he has just come to a magnificent conclusion with clarity.

What is the style?

Sources: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 21, Sixteenth Century Art in Italy, "The Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel"

Dr. Elizabeth Gand, Diablo Valley College, Course: History of Medieval / Renaissance Art (196 SP24) Unit V Module 1: The 1500s: A Peak Moment and A Breaking Apart, "Michelangelo, Pope Julius II, and the Sistine Ceiling"

The Sistine Chapel's ceiling is painted in a trompe l'oeil style, where the fresco creates "..an illusionistic marble architecture (that) establishes a framework for the figures and narrative scenes on the vault of the chapel." The elements of this style are everywhere and critical to the fresco. These elements include a cornice, pilasters, "sculpted" figures, and decorative ignudi. The style of the storytelling images and prophets of the fresco is

described as "..monumental.." by Dr. Gand, and that is apt. Each of the panels has a grand figure decorated by a simple background, which better allows a viewer to examine the pieces from the ground. A good example of the style on display is in the Creation of Adam, where the figures themselves are well detailed, but they rest on a background that is only vaguely suggestive of Heaven and Earth.

Who was the original, historical audience for this artwork? How did the subject and style satisfy their desires? How did it fit their historical values and way of life?

Sources: Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, Ch. 21, Sixteenth Century Art in Italy, "The Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel"

Dr. Elizabeth Gand, Diablo Valley College, Course: History of Medieval / Renaissance Art (196 SP24) Unit V Module 1: The 1500s: A Peak Moment and A Breaking Apart, "Michelangelo, Pope Julius II, and the Sistine Ceiling"

The historical audience for this work was Pope Julius II, who desired a grand piece of art, built to his specifications for the purpose of increasing the status, glory, and ultimately, power of the Catholic Church. Michelangelo satisfied his desires by planning and executing a masterful, large piece for the Pope. Despite Michelangelo ostensibly planning the ceiling himself, "..his plan(s) no doubt required the pope's approval." This means that although the sources do not have the Pope's exact reaction, it is likely he was pleased by the final result. The values expressed by this piece were those that would cause the Protestant Reformation just five years after the creation of this piece. Pope Julius II had engaged in multiple kinds of actions that the reformers would find disagreeable, including selling indulgences, engaging in warfare, and seeking power for the papacy. The Protestant Reformation, caused by these attitudes and beliefs in the Catholic Church, would have a notable effect on art before and after it, as can be seen through the rest of this timeline of Italian and Northern European art from the 15th and 16th centuries. Art pieces such as this, created at the dawn of the 16th century, represents a pivot point between religiously focused art and the move toward secularism.