Human Physiology HW#4 (Endocrine System) by Efrain Rivera-Serrano

Hashimoto's disease

2025-05-03 15:32:29 UTC

Hashimoto’s Disease is an autoimmune diseases in which the body’s immune system attacks its own thyroid gland. This causes inflammation and eventually hypothyroidism which in other words is low thyroid hormone levels. The thyroid gland is an important part of the endocrine system because it produces hormones like T3 and T4 that regulate metabolism, temperature, and energy levels which are all necessary for maintaining homeostasis. In Hashimoto’s, lymphocytes(WBCS) infiltrate the thyroid gland and hormone production then decreases. When hormone levels drop, thyroid tissue damage occurs and symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, and cold sensitivity can occur.

Endocrine disrupting compounds like perchlorate may contribute to Hashimoto’s disease symptoms and lasting effects by interfering with thyroid hormone production and immune system regulation. These disruptors are found in plastics, industrial chemicals, and contaminated water. However in the body, perchlorate competes with iodine uptake in the thyroid and messes with thyroid hormone production. Low iodine levels and exposure to this disruptor can increase the risk of autoimmune attacks in someone with Hashimoto’s. In relation to the disease, disruptors cause stress in thyroid cells, increasing the risk and severity of thyroid tissue damage.

The most common medication used to treat Hashimoto’s disease is levothyroxine. This is a synthetic form of the T4 hormone. It works as a hormone mimic by replacing what the thyroid can’t produce. This treatment helps to restore normal hormone levels and alleviate symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, and cold sensitivity. Although it doesn’t stop the immune attack, it helps manage symptoms by correcting the hormonal deficiency and directly supporting the endocrine system. Hashimoto’s is a clear example of how environmental factors and immune dysfunction can affect the endocrine system.

Hyperglucagonemia

2025-05-03 19:44:29 UTC

Hyperglucagonemia is a medical condition where the hormone glucagon is way to high in the blood. Glucagon is made in the pancreas by the alpha cells. In the endocrine system glucagon is used to maintain blood glucose levels. This is especially useful when someone is fasting because glycogen breakdown is stimulated and glucose production in the liver. This condition is usually caused by tumors of the alpha cells which is known as glucagnomas or type 2 diabetes. In type 2 diabetes glucagon secretion is effected because the inhibitory effect on insulin is disrupted because of insulin resistance. This leads to heightened glucagon levels. This condition directly effects the endocrine system due to its disruption in hormonal balance between insulin and glucagon which is essential for glucose homeostasis. A disrupter is when glucagon is overproduced it overloads the livers glucose production and insulin actions. This disruption effects the pancreas because thats where glucagon is produced and the liver because glucagon exerts most of its effects there. Blood sugar levels are effects because of the abnormal glucagon output from the pancreas alpha cells. Medications that can help are medications that can either target glucagon secretion or its effects like high blood glucose levels. GLP-1 receptor agonist suppress glucagon secretion and restore insulin and glucagon balance. DPP-4 inhibitor suppress glucagon release also and lowers blood glucose.

Bisphenol A (BPA)

2025-05-03 20:58:14 UTC

A) Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical that has been used to make certain plastics and resin since the 1950s. Some research has shown that BPA can seep into food or beverages from containers that are made with BPA. B) Exposure to BPA is a concern because of the health effects on the brain as well as prostate glands, and it can also affect children's behavior. BPA is classified as an Endocrine Disruptor because it can act as a xenoestrogen. Endocrine disruptors interfere and prevent the binding of natural hormones to their receptors and can act as a hormone mimic; consequently, they exaggerate the effects of endogenous hormones. Researchers have also found that exposure to BPA is associated with an increased risk of insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and alteration of normal immune response C) BPAs are not used as a medication, but can be used in the production of polymers for medical devices such as catheters and implants, and some dental devices

Cushing's Syndrome

awinchock — 2025-05-04 20:16:47 UTC

Cushing syndrome happens when the body has too much cortisol for a long period of time. Cortisol is a hormone made by the adrenal glands, which are part of the endocrine system. This condition can be caused by taking steroid medications for a long time or by tumors in the pituitary or adrenal glands. The pituitary gland normally tells the adrenal glands how much cortisol to make using another hormone called ACTH. When there’s too much ACTH or a tumor making the adrenal glands produce extra cortisol, it throws off the hormone balance.

Disruptor: Phthalates are chemicals found in plastics, personal care products, and even food packaging. They can mess with the endocrine system by affecting how hormones work, especially cortisol. Phthalates may throw off the balance between the brain and adrenal glands, which control stress hormones. This can lead to problems with how the body handles stress and might even play a role in hormone disorders.

Turner Syndrome

2025-05-05 15:54:20 UTC

Turner Syndrome is a genetic disorder where individuals are missing all or part of one X chromosome. It has significant effects on the endocrine system, especially the ovaries. Because the ovaries are usually underdeveloped or nonfunctional, people with Turner Syndrome typically have low levels of estrogen and progesterone, which leads to delayed puberty, infertility, and short stature. This hormonal deficiency causes the pituitary gland to overproduce luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), disrupting the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. A relevant endocrine disruptor is Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic compound found in plastics and food packaging. BPA mimics estrogen by binding to estrogen receptors, interfering with hormone signaling in glands like the ovaries, pituitary, and hypothalamus. While BPA doesn't cause Turner Syndrome, its hormone-like activity can worsen hormonal imbalances in those who have the condition. The main treatment for Turner Syndrome is estrogen replacement therapy (ERT), which uses synthetic estrogen as an agonist to activate estrogen receptors and compensate for the ovaries’ hormone deficiency. ERT supports the development of secondary sexual characteristics, bone health, and menstrual function.

Congenital Leptin Deficiency

2025-05-05 19:44:04 UTC

Congenital leptin deficiency is a rare condition where a person's body cannot make leptin, a hormone made by adipose (fat) tissue. What leptin does essentially is signal the brain (specifically the hypothalamus) to regulate appetite and energy balance, so it can control hunger. Without it, the brain always thinks the body is starving, even when it has plenty of fat. This causes people with the condition to feel very hungry all the time and usually become severely overweight at a young age. Leptin is a part of the endocrine system because it carries signals between fat tissue and the brain to control hunger and energy use.

In this condition, the disruptor is not a chemical from outside the body but it is the missing leptin hormone due to a gene problem. The fat tissue (where leptin is made) and the hypothalamus in the brain (where leptin sends its signal) is what is affected. In general, some chemicals in the environment called endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can also affect leptin hormones. For example, bisphenol A (BPA), found in plastics, can change how fat cells work or how the body responds to leptin.

The main treatment for congenital leptin deficiency is metreleptin which is essentially a lab-made version of leptin. It replaces the missing leptin in the body, acting like the natural hormone and helping the brain know when the body has enough fat.

Dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency

2025-05-05 20:13:06 UTC

Dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency is an extremely rare genetic disorder that prevents the body from synthesizing epinephrine and norepinephrine. This disorder has two main causes. The first being genetic mutation in the DBH gene that codes for this enzyme Dopamine beta-hydroxylase which is responsible for converting the neurotransmitter dopamine into norepinephrine and epinephrine. The second cause is autosomal recessive inheritance which means that an individual inherits two recessive genes from the parents. The endocrine system is primarily responsible for the release of hormones throughout the body. This disorder disrupts the endocrine system heavily because it stops the production of two hormones that regulate many different bodily functions and jobs of the autonomic nervous system. It affects the autonomic nervous system which leads to orthostatic hypotension, exercise intolerance, and hypoglycemia, which are related to endocrine gland function. In addition, the body’s of patients with dopamine beta-hydroxylase deficiency also suffer from issues with their blood pressure, body temperature, and glucose metabolism.

Hyperthyroidism

2025-05-05 20:27:59 UTC

Hyperthyroidism is a condition where the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone. This relates to the endocrine system because the thyroid gland is a big factor in the endocrine system as a whole, and this specific hormone, mainly T3 and T4, focus on development, growth, and maintaining metabolism. The thyroid gland, found in the lower region of the neck, is most affected by this. The overproduction of this hormone disrupts the negative feedback loop that normally runs, so the TRH and TSH production is inhibited due to the overproduction of T3 and T4, causing more production of the thyroid hormone, furthering the inflammation of the gland, causing a Goiter. This disease is treated with anti-thyroid medications, radioactive iodine therapy, or surgery to remove some or all of the thyroid gland. As for the medication, it causes the body to stop using iodine to produce the thyroid hormone, so the level of production decreases in order to regulate TRH and TSH and bring the loop back to normal. The endocrine system works mainly as hormone secretion and regulation, so when such a large part of it is not acting correctly, the body and medicine work to bring the feedback loop back to normal.

type 2 diabetes

2025-05-05 20:30:55 UTC

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic disease that leads to insufficient insulin production. This can cause excessive thirst, urination, hunger, and other side effects. It also causes high blood glucose. Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar. In healthy individuals, insulin causes cells to take in glucose. But when there is insufficient insulin production, there is too much glucose in the blood since the cells don’t have insulin to tell them to take in glucose. All of this happens due to decreased pancreatic function. The pancreas is the organ that releases insulin, and when someone has type 2 diabetes, the pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin to keep up with the increasing blood sugar. This disease is related to the endocrine system since insulin is a hormone and the pancreas is the endocrine gland that produces it. The endocrine system is in charge of regulating body functions, and type 2 diabetes is a disease of the regulation of blood sugar. Insulin is also part of a negative feedback loop, which is a main concept in physiology. In healthy individuals, the insulin feedback loop works as such: the pancreas senses high blood sugar, it secretes insulin, insulin causes cells to take up glucose, blood sugar goes down, and then the pancreas senses the lower blood sugar and limits insulin production. In people with type 2 diabetes, the loop is messed up: the pancreas senses the increase, doesn’t produce enough insulin, cells can’t take up the glucose, so blood glucose stays too high.

Tamoxifen

2025-05-05 20:37:28 UTC

Tamoxifen is a medication used to treat estrogen-receptor positive breast cancer. This is where cells grow because of the hormone estrogen. Estrogen is made by the ovaries which is part of the endocrine system. When there is too much estrogen it can cause certain cancer cells to grow. Some chemicals found in plastics, pesticides, and personal care products act like estrogen. These are called xenoestrogens and can confuse the body by overstimulating estrogen receptors. They affect the endocrine system by interfering with normal hormone signals especially in the ovaries and hormone feedback loops. Tamoxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM). It blocks estrogen from attaching to its receptor in breast cells which stops cancer from growing. It acts like an antagonist in the breast but can act like estrogen in other tissues like bones. This makes it directly connected to the endocrine system and how the body uses hormones.

PCOS

2025-05-06 00:50:03 UTC

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder that causes a tendency to develop ovarian cysts as well as irregular periods and excess androgen levels. Often, people with this syndrome are seen to have excessive hair growth, thin hair, acne, and weight gain. This condition makes it more likely to develop metabolic disorders like diabetes and certain cancers. PCOS disrupts androgens, which are reproductive hormones, as well as estrogen, progesterone, LH and FSH. Androgens are produced in the ovaries and adrenal glands and act as messengers within the endocrine system. They travel through the bloodstream to reach androgen receptors, which can regulate gene expression in cells. The gene expression often controls reproductive development, which causes the symptoms seen in PCOS. Unfortunately, there is no specific medication that cures PCOS, but there are different medications that help limit the symptoms of the disorder. Birth control pills and antiandrogens can help manage PCOS, and fertility medications can help combat the infertility issues caused by an abnormality of androgens. Birth control works as hormone mimics, blocking ovulation and therefore stopping the irregular, painful periods seen in people with PCOS. Antiandrogens work as antagonists, blocking the over production of androgens.

Gigantism

2025-05-06 17:54:27 UTC

Gigantism is a condition in which there is an overproduction of growth hormone. The main sign of gigantism is excessive growth. Children with gigantism are very tall. It is very rare with around 100 cases having been reported in the US and typically affects more boys than girls. Gigantism can only affect children before puberty when their bones finish fusing. This condition is typically caused by tumor growth on the pituitary gland which leads to the increased release of growth hormone. This hormone works closely with insulin-like growth factor 1 which is a hormone released by the liver. Both of these hormones work with growth and metabolism. Excessive amounts of growth hormone can also lead to increased levels of insulin-like growth factor 1. In order to diagnose gigantism, a blood test will be run to look at the levels of the growth hormone and the insulin-like growth factor 1. To treat gigantism, the growth hormone as well as the insulin-like growth factor are closely monitored and medication may be given to help control their effects. Health care providers will also monitor the tumor on the pituitary gland and make decisions for treatment based on its growth.

Gigantism: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment. Cleveland Clinic. [accessed 2025 May 6]. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22954-gigantism

Wermer’s Syndrome

2025-05-06 20:38:19 UTC

Wermer’s Syndrome is an inherited genetic disorder caused by mutations in the MEN1 gene. A mutation leads to the development of tumors in the parathyroid glands, pancreatic islet cells, and the Pituitary gland. The endocrine gland tumors that form due to MEN 1 are usually not cancerous. The glands affected can cause an excess in hormone release. These symptoms include tiredness, bone pain, broken bones, kidney stones, and ulcers in the stomach or intestines. MEN1 cannot be cured, but can be monitored to mitigate health risks. MEN1 gene controls the release of menin. Menin regulates the cells in the body from dividing too quickly. This leads to tumors in the endocrine system. These tumors can cause an extensive list of medical conditions, all of which can be treated. These may include, but are not limited to, hyperparathyroidism, neuroendocrine tumors, hypoglycemic syndrome, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. All of these medical conditions are the result of tumors in the endocrine system.

Prolactinoma

2025-05-06 21:29:20 UTC

Prolactinoma is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland. The tumor grows on the pituitary gland and produce many different kinds of symptoms. Overall, as an endocrine disorder it effects a major endocrine organ. The pituitary gland is a “master gland” in the endocrine and is responsible for major hormonal activity. A prolactinoma produces excess prolactin which can lower sex hormones which can disrupt menstrual cycles, galactorrhea or even infertility in either sex. In some cases osteoporosis developes. Prolactinoma doesn’t have any commonly known disruptors that propagate the disorder however, some hypotheses for disruptors effecting prolactin dysregulation include BPA. BPA is commonly found in various plastics and mimic the structures of sex hormones and bind to the respective cites. This disrupts the absorption and activity of sex hormones which influence prolactin production. Dopamine agonists are often used to treat prolactinoma. The medications themselves mimic dopamine actions and in turn reduce prolactin levels from dopamine receptor activation. Overall, this connects back to course material as it highlights the relationship between receptor activity and bodily responses to hypersecretion.

Hypogonadism

eoreilly4_1 — 2025-05-06 23:14:40 UTC

Hypogonadism is a hormonal disorder when the body doesn’t produce enough sex hormones (ie. testosterone for men and estrogen in women). It can be caused by problems with the testes/ovaries or abnormalities with the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, which control hormone production. In men, symptoms include low libido, erectile dysfunction, and fatigue, while women can experience missed periods, infertility, and bone loss. Endocrine disruptors, such as chemicals like BPA and phthalates (chemicals used in the production of plastics), can interfere with hormone production, affecting the glands that produce sex hormones. These chemicals can mess with the hormones that regulate the gonads, leading to lower hormone levels. These chemicals can act like a hormone in the body, especially estrogen, and interfere with the endocrine system. To treat hypogonadism, doctors often use hormone replacement therapy. For men, testosterone replacement helps raise hormone levels, improving symptoms like low energy and libido. For women, estrogen therapy is used, especially after menopause. These hormone therapies aim to balance hormones and restore normal body function.

Levothyroxine

2025-05-07 01:04:26 UTC

Levothyroxine is a type of medication typically used for patients with hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism, caused by many things and present in many forms, is an endocrine disorder wherein the thyroid doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormone is responsible for regulating crucial bodily functions such as heart rate, muscle and brain function, metabolism, growth, etc. A specific thyroid hormone important to its function is T4. T4 is an inactive hormone and, when converted to T3 in the liver and kidney, becomes the active thyroid hormone able to deliver signals to body cells. In hypothyroidism, too little T4 is made which ultimately leads to the under reactivity of the thyroid gland, slowing the body’s metabolism and causing symptoms such as weight gain and intense fatigue. Levothyroxine is effectively a synthetic T4 hormone, responsible for producing the same physiological effects as a typical T4. Because of this, it is able maintain “normal T4” levels when the body is naturally deficient. Levothyroxine increases metabolic rate and decreases TSH production in the pituitary gland (re-establishing the negative feedback loop that should be present in the body), which reduces the adverse symptoms seen in patients with hypothyroidism.

Hypoaldosteronism

2025-05-07 01:17:45 UTC

Hypoaldosteronism, also known as HA is a disease that is defined by not enough aldosterone production or action. A hormone is released by the zona glomerulosa, which is a part of the adrenal cortex. Since it is the main location for the synthesis of aldosterone. By stimulating potassium excretion and sodium reabsorption in the kidneys, aldosterone serves a vital role within your endocrine system, helping to control blood pressure and fluid balance. The primary causes of hypoaldosteronism are hypertension, Addison's disease, chronic kidney disease, and several medicines. The production or function of adrenal hormones, such as aldosterone, can be disrupted by certain endocrine disruptors. Adrenal-related diseases and fluid and electrolyte imbalances are caused by certain disruptors that alter hormone signaling. The many processes of the endocrine system, including those that indirectly affect aldosterone, can be disrupted by common environmental substances found in our everyday lives. Patients frequently take fludrocortisone(Florinef), to treat hypoaldosteronism.is a synthetic mineralocorticoid that functions as an aldosterone agonist, or hormone mimic. Fludrocortisone helps to restore the functions that are disrupted in hypoaldosteronism by simulating the activity of aldosterone. Increased sodium reabsorption, increased potassium excretion, and increased hydrogen ion excretion are the three main advantages of this medication. The main electrolyte in the extracellular fluid, which is also the fluid that surrounds cells is sodium. The osmotic pressure is the force that pulls water into and out of cells which is maintained in large part by it. Blood volume decreases as a result of water leaving the body together with too much sodium. Hypotension is one of the outcomes of low blood volume. Dizziness, exhaustion, fainting, and shock, come where organs do not receive adequate blood flow.

Empty Sella Syndrome

2025-05-07 14:05:32 UTC

Empty Sella Syndrome (ESS) is a condition where the sella turcica, a structure at the base of the skull that normally holds the pituitary gland, appears empty on medical imaging. There are two main forms of ESS: primary and secondary. Primary ESS is typically caused by a defect in a small membrane called the diaphragma sellae, which covers the sella turcica. This defect allows cerebrospinal fluid to enter the space, placing pressure on the pituitary gland and causing it to flatten, which makes the area look empty on scans. In secondary ESS, the pituitary gland is damaged due to factors such as injury, surgery, radiation treatment, or inflammation. This damage can cause the gland to shrink or be partially or fully removed, leaving the sella turcica empty.

ESS has a significant impact on the endocrine system because the pituitary gland is a key regulator of many hormonal functions in the body. Often referred to as the "master gland," it produces several important hormones, including ACTH (which stimulates the adrenal glands), TSH (which activates the thyroid gland), and LH and FSH (which support reproductive functions). When the pituitary gland is compressed or damaged, it may not produce these hormones properly, leading to hormonal imbalances. As a result, individuals with ESS can experience symptoms such as chronic fatigue, fertility issues, disrupted growth, and difficulty managing stress, depending on which hormones are affected.

Anabolic Steroids

2025-05-07 17:32:39 UTC

anabolic steroids is known for quickly gaining mass muscle and recovering very fast. The disorder is causes is hypogonadism, which is when the body doesn't produce enough testosterone. It relates to the endocrine system because Testosterone is produced by the leydig cells under the testes under the stimulation of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, which is regulated by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) from hypothalamus and a disruption in this system can lead to low testosterone. Anabolic steroids acts as an endocrine disruptor and effects the endocrine system by suppressing the HPG axis through negative feedback loop. This reduces the secretion of LH and GNRH, which causes testicular atrophy and decreases testosterone production. The glands affected are the hypothalamus, pituitary, and testes. Anabolic steroids are used to treat the disorder hypogonadism by acting as an agonist, mimicking the action of natural testosterone. They promote muscle growth, red blood cell production, and secondary sexual characteristics. Most common steroid used is testosterone via injections to help people with growth hormone issues to stimulate growth.

Addison's Disease

2025-05-07 17:47:07 UTC

Addison's disease, also known as hypocortisolism or primary adrenal insufficiency, is a rare endocrine disorder where the adrenal glands do not produce a sufficient amount of cortisol, as well as aldosterone in some cases. The onset of symptoms for this disorder are usually very slow, but can be sped up under physical stress or due to illnesses and injuries. Symptoms include fatigue, dizziness or fainting due to postural hypertension, hypoglycemia, abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, muscles cramps, weakness, joint pain, depression, irritability, weight loss, loss of body hair, darkened skin spots, and many more. Addison's disease is the result of damaged adrenal glands, which sit on top of the kidneys and make hormones that affect all parts and functions of the body. This could be the result of an autoimmune disorder, serious infections, cancers, genetic conditions like hyperplasia, and more. The cortex of the medulla is responsible for the production of corticosteroids, including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens, which then result in the production of cortisol and aldosterone. Those with Addison's disease are recommended to take medications that regulate their steroid hormone levels, to compensate for the deficiencies resulting from malfunctioning adrenal gland. These medications, such as hydrocortisone, prednisone, or methylprednisolone, mimic the changes in cortisol levels the body would go through in 24 hours, while others, such as fludrocortisone, mimic hormones like aldosterone. This topic relates to what we have talked about in class in terms of endocrine organs producing and secreting hormones that alter the way our entire body functions. When the adrenal glands are not able to function properly, they are unable to produce essential hormones needed in most bodily functions and reactions.

Semaglutide (Ozempic)

rhutchinson3_1 — 2025-05-07 17:49:54 UTC

Ozempic is a medication primarily used to treat type 2 diabetes and also help people with weight loss. Ozempic mimics a hormone in the body called GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1), which is released by the intestines after eating. GLP-1 plays a crucial role in blood sugar regulation by stimulating the pancreas to release insulin, reducing the liver’s sugar production by lowering glucagon levels, slowing digestion to delay sugar absorption, and giving a feeling of fullness. Ozempic activates the same receptors as natural GLP-1, helping to manage blood sugar and appetite.

This relates to class because we talked about the pancreas, which is a hormone producing organ in the endocrine system and it helps regulate insulin levels.

Oxytocin Deficiency

2025-05-07 20:21:37 UTC

Oxytocin Deficiency is caused by the body producing insufficient levels of the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin is crucial for social bonding and emotional regulation. A deficiency of this hormone would come from damages to the hypothalamus, which would disrupt hormone signaling. There are also environmental chemicals that can interfere with oxytocin pathways. For example, food in plastic containers and food cans. These disrupters mimic estrogen and interfere with hormone signaling. This unfortunate condition relates to our class because it relates to hormone production. Oxytocin is produced by the hypothalamus, reinforcing the importance of specific organs with their specific outputs. In addition, this condition also shows how oxytocin can affect multiple physiological processes, like I previously stated. This condition illustrates how important endocrine organs are, how bad it could be if the signals to hormones are interrupted, and how it can impact natural behavioral steps.

Hypermelatoninemia

2025-05-08 00:00:57 UTC

Hypermelatoninemia is a condition of too much melatonin, a peptide hormone, in the blood. While this is usually a result of taking too much of a melatonin supplement, it can happen without taking extra supplements. It occurs naturally when too much melatonin is produced by the pineal gland, which can be found in the brain. The pineal gland is responsible for regulating your body's circadian system via secretion of melatonin. Not known about the pineal gland because it is the most recently discovered part of the endocrine system. The secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland is stimulated by the darkness of nighttime and inhibited via sunlight, which the body uses to help promote a proper sleep cycle. When the pineal gland is secreting more melatonin than necessary or at improper hours of the day, your body's sleep cycle will be disrupted. This is also why taking too much melatonin before bed is advised against because when there is excess melatonin in the body, you will wake up and still be tired.

2025-05-08 00:12:29 UTC

Metformin is a medication that is used to treat Type 2 Diabetes (T2D). In an individual with T2D, the pancreas still produces insulin, but the body doesn't respond to it, which then disrupts glucose homeostasis. This is a key function of the endocrine system and the disruption leads to increased blood sugar levels. Metformin acts on endocrine pathways by enhancing insulin sensitivity such as decreasing production of glucose or decreasing the body's absorption. Metformin activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and enzyme that plays a role in energy regulation. this helps the body regulate its' blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis. By lowering blood glucose, metformin helps to restore the body's negative feedback loop between insulin and glucose.

Dopamine and depression

2025-05-08 01:11:21 UTC

Depression is a mood disorder that creates sadness and a loss of interest in activities. On a physiological level, depression is associated with imbalances of neurotransmitters in the brain like serotonin and dopamine. In individuals experiencing depression, low levels of dopamine are often found, which is what causes a lack of motivation and pleasure. Dopamine relates to the endocrine system because it regulates the release of certain hormones by interacting with different endocrine organs like the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands. Low dopamine caused by depression can cause prolactin, a hormone involved in milk production and reproduction, to rise, as dopamine normally inhibits prolactin release. Low dopamine also affects growth hormone, causing the regulation not to be normal which can affect growth and metabolism. Dopamine also affects TSH regulation as dopamine affects the pituitary gland and what it releases. There are also dopamine receptors on the pancreas and adrenal gland which be impacted by low dopamine levels. Dopamine is an incredibly important player in regulating the endocrine system, and when depression affects it, it will have a wider impact on the body.

Prolactinoma

2025-05-08 01:22:38 UTC

Prolactinoma is a benign tumor found on the pituitary gland, they typically develop on their own but genetics could play a role. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing and releasing hormones that regulate body functions such as homeostasis. The tumor produces a hormone called prolactin, which is increased during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Prolactin is usually secreted when a baby suckles on the nipple, this is inhibited when the hypothalamus produces a prolactin-inhibiting factor, known as dopamine. When a baby sucks on the nipple, dopamine production decreases and prolactin is released. Prolactinomas override the dopamine and produce more prolactin than needed which can cause infertility, vision difficulty, and other reproductive complications. Mammary glands are directly affected by prolactinomas - causing non-pregnant/not breastfeeding women to lactate (and sometimes even men.) Prolactinomas also suppress the production of the luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, which are both secreted by the pituitary gland and blocked from the tumor. This leads to many changes in menstruation and low estrogen in women, low testosterone and erectile dysfunction in men, and fertility issues in both. Overall, prolactinomas disrupt the endocrine system by interfering with the regular hormonal balance controlled by the pituitary gland.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

2025-05-08 02:20:49 UTC

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome, also known as PCOS, is a hormonal condition in which one will experience an imbalance of their hormones, most specifically androgen hormones (male hormones), and have a number of cysts along the outer edge of their ovaries. These cysts contain follicles that release eggs irregularly. With this, individuals who suffer from PCOS will often have irregular menstrual cycles. Due to an imbalance of, and irregular heightened level of androgens, excess hair may grow, ovulation is often disrupted, and many patients experience insulin resistance. The effects of PCOS are primarily on the ovaries, however they are also on influential upon the pituitary gland, adrenal gland, and hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis. To treat PCOS there are a variety of drugs that can be prescribed, some of which block effects of testosterone and some reduce androgen levels/production. Both agonist and antagonistic medications can be used.

Oxytocin Deficiency

rkolte1 — 2025-05-08 02:36:23 UTC

Oxytocin deficiency is the hyposecretion of oxytocin (aka the “bonding” hormone). This relates to the endocrine system because in this disorder, damage to endocrine organs reduces secretion of a hormone. Symptoms typically include: social challenges, impaired emotional expression and empathy, muscle pain, increased appetite for sugar, sleep disturbances, and other reproductive issues.

The primary cause of oxytocin deficiency is panhypopituitarism, which is a pituitary insufficiency. Hypopituitarism is the most common form since it directly affects oxytocin.

The compound oxytocin is produced in the hypothalamus and as mentioned in class, the endocrine organ the pituitary gland( the posterior gland) stores are releases it into the bloodstream when needed. It also impacts other brain regions and the spinal cord. Factors that contribute to oxytocin release are food intake, self soothing, and stress. Overall, its main function is to regulate reproductive system and social behavior.

The treatment for oxytocin deficiency is oxytocin itself, or Pitocin for labor.