-monomer of lipids are fatty acids

a.) Triglycerides

-polymer of lipids

-composed of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol molecule- C3H5(OH)3

Neutral fats- 3 different fats, 3 chains

-found in fat deposits

-source of stored energy

Saturated fatty acids-contain only single covalent bonds

-have more energy in them so that energy is stored as fat

-solid at room temperature

Unsaturated fatty acids- contain one or more double covalent bonds

-liquid at room temperature

b.) Phospholipids

-charged

-contain two fatty acids rather than three

-forms cell membranes

c.) Steroids

-four carbon rings fused together

-includes cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some other hormones

-cholesterol is the basis for all steroids

a)Atomic Mass

-It is the sum of protons and neutrons.

-Electrons are so small they don't count.

-A neutron and proton are each counted for as 1 whereas and electron is .001.

b)Atomic Number

-Tells us where it is located on periodic table.

-It is the number of protons in the atom. This can then help us to find the number of electrons which is the same as protons.

c)Atomic Weight and Isotopes

-Atomic weight is close to the mass number of the most abundant isotope.

-An isotope is an element with the same amount of protons and same atomic number.

*The amount of neutrons vary. For Ex.

Carbon is p-6 n-6 e-6

Carbon 14 is p-6 n-8 e-6

- A radioisotope is a heavier isotope that tends to be unstable.

a. CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS

-release hydrogen ions (H+)

-are proton donors

-pH below 7

-acids and bases react to form water and a salt

-have a sour taste

-compounds that break down hydrogen ions

b. CHARACTERISTICS OF BASES

-keeps things from being acidic

-release hydroxyl ions (OH-)

-are proton acceptors

-pH above 7

-can have a bitter taste

c.PH: ACID-BASE CONCENTRATIONS

-pH: measures the relative concentration of hydrogen ions

-pH 7 : neutral

-pH above 7: basic

-pH below 7: acidic

- buffers: chemicals that can regulate pH change

-(NH3) forms OH when reacted with water

- bases are ionic bonds

-break apart negatively charged by hydrogen ions

-

-2 pieces join together resulting in a complex compound

-OPPOSITE of decomposition

EX.  

A + B ---> AB

CaO + CO₂ ---> CaCO₃

-Importance in the body: Anabolism is the build up of materials in the body, synthesis reactions allow for this.

-Anabolism requires dehydration synthesis, which is when water is removed to join the molecules, creating more complex ones.

-Synthesis reactions include protein synthesis which promotes the formation of polypeptide chains

-Without synthesis reactions the body would simply not function as these are essential.

Atoms are the smallest unit and is composed of a nucleus, made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Atomic mass number equals sum of protons and neutrons.

Isotopes are the same number of protons and electrons but vary in the number of neutrons.

Ions are atoms that are electrically neutral but when they gain or lose electrons during bonding their positive and negative charges are no longer balanced and this is what makes them an ion.

Ionic bonds are the transfer of electrons.

Covalent bonds are the sharing of electrons.

Ionic bonds form when their valence shell are incompletely filled and they have to lose or gain and electron.

Covalent bonds form so each atom is able to fill its valence she'll at least a part of the time.

The Valence shell is the outermost shell. Shell 1 can hold 2 electrons, 2 can hold 8 electrons, and 3 can hold about 18 electrons.

Electrons are negative, protons are positive, and neutrons are neutral.

Structural Levels of Proteins

-made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur

-built from amino acids

-has an amine group (NH2) and an acid group (COOH)

-vital role in cell function

-act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies (immune system)

Fibrous Proteins (structural proteins)

-very important in binding structures together

- provide strength in certain body tissues

- collagen is in bones, cartilledge, and tendons and is the most abundant protein in the body

- keratin is the structural protein of hair and nails and makes skin tough

- stable

Globular Proteins (functional proteins)

-do things rather than just form structures

-function as antibodies and enzymes

-can be denatured since the hydrogen bonds are fragile and easily broken by heat and excesses of pH

Enzymes and Enzyme Activity

- enzymes are functional proteins that act as a biological catalyst

-enzymes bind and hold the reacting molecules, when bounded to the enzymes active site it undergoes structural changes, and finally becomes a new product

-they're reusable

- determines which reactions are possible at a certain time

- named according to the specific type of reaction they catalyze

-Electrons occupy generally fixed regions or space around the nucleus called the electron shell

-Electrons closer to the nucleus are positive charged

-Electrons further from the nucleus are less securely held

-First shell can hold 2 electrons

-Second shell can hold up to 8 electrons

-Third shell can hold up to 8 electrons

-The backbone of the structure is made up of sugars and phosphate molecules

-The rest of the structure is made up of nucleotides

2 types:

-DNA : Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine

- Double stranded (double helix)

-2 RNA strands

-Has the sugar deoxyribose

-Stores genetic material in most cells

-RNA: Adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil

-Single stranded

-3 types: mRNA, tRNA, RNA

-Has the sugar ribose

-Main source if genetic storage in viruses

Involves synthesis AND decomposition reactions

AB+C-------> AC +B

Products must remain electrically neutral

-most abundant inorganic compound in the body

-vital properties include:

-high heat capacity

-polarity/solvent properties

-chemical reactivity

-cushioning

-ATP provides a form of energy that's usable by all cells

-It is formed when glucose is digested. Although glucose is the main source of energy, it can not be used directly by animals. It will be broken down and the energy that is released will be stored in ATP molecules.

-The structure of a typical ATP molecule is a ribose sugar, an adenine group, and 3 phosphate groups.

-ATP is used when the bonds go through hydrolysis.

The reaction is:

ATP --> ADP (A ribose sugar, an adenine group, and 2 Phosphate groups) + Phosphate Group + Energy

Monosaccharides

-simple sugars

-monomer of carbohydrates

Examples include: glucose, fructose, galactose

Formula is C6H12O6

( they are isomers, meaning that they have the same chemical make up, different formulas.)

Disaccharides

- two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis

-examples include: lactose ( galactose+glucose). And maltose ( glucose+glucose)

Polysaccharides

- Long branching chains of linked simple sugars

-Ideal storage product because they are large, insoluble molecules

-2 polysaccharide important to the body.

-Starch- storage polysaccharide formed by plants.

-We take it in by grain products and root vegetables..

-Glycogen- found in animals tissues ( largely in muscles and liver)

-Both starch and glycogen are formed by linked glucose unit.

Type of chemical bonding between two ions of opposite charges

During ionic bonding atoms become stable through the transfer of electrons

They form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom it another

Example: COOH -->COO- + H+

They also play an important role in determining the shapes of proteins

* Is an inorganic compound

- ionic compounds are easily separated into their ions in water

- vital to body function

- charged particles which means all salts are electrolytes

- electrolytes conduct electrical currents in solution

Covalent Bonds- The chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

Covalent bonds are used when an atom wants to fill its valence shell with the largest amount of electrons that it can hold.

- Strongest of the three chemical bonds

- The human body is made up almost entirely of covalent bonds

- Holds together RNA

-enzymes speed up the rate of the chemical reaction

-they cause the break down of bonds allowing for chemical bonding

-they are reusable

AB--> A+B

Compound breaks down into two or more elements

Involves energy source such as heat, light, or electricity

2H2O--> 2H2+O

- Holds DNA together (Adenine and Thynine)

- Gives DNA its shape

- Weaker than an ionic and covalent bond

- It is an electrostatic attraction between polar molecules when a hydrogen atom bonds to a highly electronegative atom like Nitrogen, Oxygen or Flourine

How does it help the different structures in proteins?

chemical energy

-occurs through chemical compounds (atoms that are bonded together)

- there are six basic types of chemical reactions that use chemical energy (combustion, synthesis, single displacement, decomposition, double displacement, and acid-base)

- chemical energy is used during digestion, its used to break down food.

electric energy

- carried by moving electrons in an electric conductor

-electric energy is nerver impulses. it is used to send messages to the brain.

mechanical energy

-energy associated with the motion and position of an object.

- used to help your muscles move

Covalent Bonds are bonds that basically share electrons in the valence shell. In this type of bond if a bigger atom bonds with a smaller one then the bigger atom would be negative and the smaller atom would be positive. This happens because the bigger atom gets the electrons for a longer period, since electron have negative change they add negative charge to atom but the smaller atom get less electrons so it has a positive charge. The human body is basicly made out of this bond. Atoms use this type of bond to fill thier valence shell.

Hydrogen bonds are used in many different things, for example DNA. Hydrogen bonds not only hold adenine and thymine together but they also give DNA strands their double helix configuration. They also allow for enzymes to bind to their substrate, antibodies bind to their antigen, and polypeptides bind together. This is because of the attraction between hydrogen and the negative portion of polar molecules such as oxygen or nitrogen or even fluorine. However these bonds are not as strong as they may appear, hydrogen bonds are weaker then both ionic and covalent bonds having only 1/10 the strength of covalent bonds.

Commonly known as fats, oils, waxes, steroids and sex hormones. They are composed of mostly carbon and hydrogen sometimes oxygen. The structure is with no double bonds it's saturated and with double bonds it's unsaturated. Neutral fats also known as triglycerides which are assembled by a glycerol + 3 fatty acids> triglyceride + 3H2O. They function as long term energy, fat or insulation, steroids that send messages to the body, cell membrane, and insoluble in water. Phospholipids contain 2 fatty acids. It is composed of a Phosphorus(polar end), glycerol backbone, and the 2 fatty acids(unpolar end). The steroids contain cholesterol, salts, vitamins, sex hormones, and vitamin D. Steroids composed of 4 fused carbon rings besides vitamin D.

Most amino acids are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur atoms. Amino acids are also the monomers. Likewise, the proteins are the polymers and are also known as polypeptides. Proteins are also made up of amino acids, there are twenty different kinds of them. Each animo acid has an amine group (NH_2_) and a carboxylic group (COOH). Proteins are the construction materials of body tissues and they play a vital role in cell functions. Proteins also act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies. There are four different types of protein structures: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. A string of amino acids that are connected through peptide bonds are known as the primary structure of proteins. There are two types of secondary structures, alpha -helix and beta pleated sheet. Hydrogen bonds help attach the two sheets together. There is also a R group that is always changing in each amino acid. Fibrous proteins are known as structural proteins and they appear in body structures. Collagen, which is found in skin, and keratin is found in hair. These proteins help creates bones and muscles. Globular protein are fproteins and enzymes are biological catalysts.

Carbohydrates are known as simple sugars. They are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They bond by dehydration synthesis. Meaning they take out the water through covalent bonding. The formula is C6H12O6. Monosaccharides is just a single glucose. Disaccharides is two glucose. Polysaccharides is a chain of glucose. Some examples of carbohydrates are glucose, fructose, starch and glycogen, cellulose. Starch is a plants form of energy and glycogen is a animals form of energy.

Exchange is also known as single or double replacement. It is a chemical reaction which involves both Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions. In exchange reactions, two different molecules t. examples of exchange reactions are

AB+C -->AC+B

AB+CD -->AD+CB

Exchange reactions will most likely occur if A is more reactive than B.

Chemical, electrical, and mechanical energy are the main sources of energy, radiant is left out because our body doesn't directly use it. Chemical energy is stored in bonds of chemical substances, and when the bonds break; the stored energy is released for use. It occurs through chemical compounds, and during digestion chemical energy breaks down the food. An example of chemical energy is the energy released powers in your car when gas molecules are broken in a car engine.

Electrical energy is energy from the movement of charged particles. It is generated when ions move across cell membranes in your body.

Mechanical energy is directly involved in moving matter. It helps your muscles move, such as your

Ionic Bonds are a type of Chemical Bonding between two ions of the opposite charge. Ionic Bonds transfer electrons from one element to another to make them both of the elements stable and are formed when they are completely transferred. Ions are a result of from the loss or gain of electrons. Ionic bonding also plays an important role in making the shape of a protein.

Atomic Structure 

The basic atomic subparticles in an atom are protons neutrons and electrons. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons are neutral. There are different ways to represent an atom. These ways include planetary and orbital models. The planetary model portrays the atom as a minutiae solar system. Protons and neutrons are clustered in the atomic nucleus(center of the atom). The orbital model depicts the general location of electrons outside the nucleus as a haze of negative charge referred to as an electron cloud.

Identifying Elements

The atomic number is equal to the number of proton the atom contains. This is important because no element has the same amount of protons. The atomic mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. For example helium has 2 protons 2 neutrons giving it an atomic mass of 4. It is written as a subscript to the left of the atomic symbol. Atomic weight can vary because of isotopes. Isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons but vary in the number of neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic number but have different atomic masses.

They are negative, and orbit the protons and neutrons. Electrons provide stability, they do this by trying to have a complete outer shell (valence). First shell needs 2 second needs 8, as well as the third to be complete. However the last shell needs to be 18. If they are not complete they will either share or transfer electrons to make the atom happy.

Salts are an inorganic compound that is vital to many body functions. Salts are ionic compounds which means that they have a charge and can easily separate in fluids (dissociation). This happens because the slightly negative ends of H2O molecules are attracted to Na+ and the slightly positive ends of H2O molecules are attracted to Cl- causing ions of salt crystal to be pulled apart. All salts are electrolytes which means they conduct an electrical current in a solution.

Water is composed of 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen. It is bonded by two covalent bonds. The unequal sharing of electrons results in water being polar. One of the results of being polar is that it is the solvent. It is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body. It has a high heat capacity. Water is one of the products from bonding two molecules through dehydration synthesis. It is essential to the breaking down and putting together of most chemical reactions in the body. In the body water also acts as a cushion.

pH measures the relative concentration of hydrogen ions. A pH above 7 is basic, below 7 is acidic, and 7 is neutral. Buffers are chemicals that can regulate pH change. A base is added to balance an acid, for example, taking a tums which is alkaline, will neutralize stomach acid. A neutralize reaction is when acids and bases react to form water and salt.

Acids release hydrogen ions, donate protons, have a pH below 7, and they are compounds that break down hydrogen ions.

Bases release hydroxyl ions, keep things from being acidic, are proton acceptors, and have a pH above 7.

The body needs to maintain a certain pH so that everything runs properly. A change in pH can result in protein denaturing. Carbon dioxide creates hydrogyn ions which can cause acidosis if the body doesn't get rid of enough or if the buffer system isn't properly working.

Nucleic acids are commonly known as DNA and RNA. The backbone of the structures are made up of phosphates and sugars. DNA or Deoxyrobonucleic acid contains the sugar deoxyribose and the bases are A, T, C, and G. These form a double stranded helix and this provides instructions for proteins.

RNA or ribonucleic acids contains the sugar ribose and the bases A, U, C, and G. This forms a single stranded helix. There are three types of RNA and they carry out DNA's instructions and form proteins.

In synthesis reactions the reactants combine to create a compound. The general form of synthesis reactions is: A + B --> AB

In decomposition reactions a compound is broken down into its reactants. Chemical energy is released through this process. The general form of decomposition reactions is: AB --> A + B