—Edward T. Hall, American anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher

Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese developed uncertainty reduction theory to examine this dynamic aspect of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:

1. There is a high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal communication increases and our uncertainty begins to decrease.

2. Following verbal communication, nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty continues to decrease, and more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding one’s head to indicate agreement, will start to be expressed.

3. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases, uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.

4. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, the communication interaction is not as personal or intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.

5. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication will feature more reciprocity, or displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.

6. Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.

7. Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other person, while reductions in uncertainty are associated with liking the other person more.

United States

Germany

India

Lebanon

New Zealand

Peru

Brazil

Taiwan

Saudi Arabia

United Kingdom

Argentina

The uncertainty avoidance dimension indicates the level of comfort with unstructured situations, in which unstructured situations are "novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual" (Hofstede 2011). The uncertainty avoidance dimension is different from "risk avoidance" (Hofstede 2011). It encompasses a culture's tolerance for ambiguity. Cultures high in uncertainty avoidance avoid unstructured situations with "strict behavior codes, laws and rules, disapproval of deviant opinions, and a belief in an absolute Truth …" (Hofstede, 2011).

Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members of organizations and institutions (including the family) accept and expect unequal power distributions.

This dimension is measured not only from the perspective of the leaders, who hold power, but from the followers. In regard to power distribution, Hofstede notes, "All societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others."

In a large power distance society, parents teach children obedience, while in a small power distance society parents treat children as equals.

Subordinates expect to be consulted in small power distance societies, versus being told what to do in large power distance societies.

According to Schwartz, values are concepts or beliefs that pertain to outcomes and behaviors and guide the selection and evaluation of behaviors.

Although you have a unique set of values from your family, religion and many other factors, there are values that are generally representative of a particular culture.

• Individualism

• Competition

• Privacy

• Equality

• Informality

• Future, Change, And Progress

• Time

• Achievement, Action, Work and Materialism

Collectivist cultures focus on the needs of the nation, community, family or group of workers.

There are profound cultural differences in how people think about, measure, and use their time. In the US, time is money as is a common value in industrialized economies.

Workers are paid by the hour, lawyers charge by the hour/minute, and broadcast advertising is sold by the second.

Western cultures tend to view time as linear, with a definitive beginning and end. Time is viewed as limited in supply, so Western people structure their lives, especially business operations, by milestones and deadlines. Failure to meet them could be interpreted as having a poor work ethic or being incompetent.

This way of thinking about time is not universal, however. Beliefs about time remain profoundly different from culture to culture.

Other cultures perceive time as cyclical and endless. More importance is placed on doing things right and maintaining harmony, rather than worrying about getting things done “on time.” In India, for instance, deadlines are viewed as “targets” to be met in the context of competing tasks and priorities and the potential damage a delay would have on a particular relationship. (See HBR article linked below.)

Monochronic vs. Polychronic Cultures

• Monochronic cultures view time linearly, where tasks are done sequentially, and punctuality is highly valued. Time is seen as a finite resource that can be spent, saved, or wasted. The United States, Canada and Northern European cultures (Norway, Germany, Switzerland, UK) are often cited as an example of a monochronic culture.

  
  

• Polychronic cultures perceive time more fluidly, often multitasking and valuing the completion of tasks based on the importance of relationships rather than strict schedules. In these Latin American Southeast Asian cultures, such as Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and India, Indonesia and Latin America and interruptions are more acceptable, and schedules are seen as more flexible. People are more relationship focused and do not put the same value on deadlines and punctuality.

For this discussion we’ll consider work compensated time performing tasks and services for others that earns compensation, and life will be considered those activities, including family, church, volunteer efforts, and interactions outside of the work context that do not earn money.

In North America, a predominantly individualistic culture places emphasis on autonomy, personal achievement, and work efficiency. This often leads to long working hours and an ambitious pursuit of career goals.

Despite this, recent shifts in workplace culture have sparked discussions on remote work and flexible arrangements, aiming to provide employees with more control over their time and commitments.

Conversely, many Asian cultures, such as Japan and South Korea, exhibit a strong sense of collectivism and dedication to the organization. Long work hours and a cultural phenomenon known as “karoshi” (death by overwork) highlight the challenges of maintaining work-life balance. However, these countries have begun to address these issues through policies promoting shorter workweeks, encouraging vacation days, and supporting employee well-being.

In Europe, a diverse range of cultures yields varying approaches to work-life balance. Countries like Sweden and the Netherlands are known for their progressive policies, which prioritize shorter workdays, generous parental leave, and gender equality. Other European nations, while valuing leisure time, may still grapple with societal expectations around work intensity.