traditional teacher-led, scripted schooling and an answer to the

challenges of our current postmodern knowledge culture, which aims at deeper conceptual understanding by preparing students 

to be more creative and create multi-modal knowledge.
 
 Lin (2011) refers to creative teaching as a creative, innovative and imaginative approach to teaching (cf. e.g. Craft  2005).  Creative pedagogy includes  creative teaching, teaching  for  creativity and creative learning (Lin 

2011). Sawyer (2004, 2006) emphasises the creative teacher’s

ability to use improvisational elements intuitively. When teaching creatively, a teacher should utilise the rules of improvisation by living in the moment and acting spontaneously. While a teacher may have planned a drama lesson in a certain manner, a creative teacher has the courage to take ideas that have been put forward by the pupils during the lesson and change the lesson to finish in another way (Sawyer, 2004, 2006). Creative teaching is an improvisational performance where there is tension between structure (goals, content knowledge, emotional support, classroom management) and freedom (ability to react to student group reactions). In teaching the balance shifts toward a greater degree of structure and a lesser degree of 

improvisation (Sawyer 2011). 

Another important factor, which  supports pupils’ creativity, is a positive learning 
 climate  of  the  classroom, this is  closely connected to the nature of  the interactive relationships 
 between teachers and learners. It is also especially important that pedagogical solutions focus on students’ perspectives in the classroom. Research shows that  environments that encourage  students to be active, independent,  and express their ideas and opinions also support creativity (Craft et al. 2014; Menter 2010; Fairweather & Cramond 2010). 

According to a study by Toivanen, Salomaa & Halkilahti  (2016) a creative learning environment for drama consists of the following six different elements: 1) teacher as a role model, 2) learning climate, 3) collaborative learning, 4) student-centered learning, 5) flexible use of time, 6) playful action in drama. 
 
 The creative pedagogical environment is divided into six different elements. One of the best ways teachers can support and encourage students to think and act creatively is to model creative behaviour themselves. Playfulness,  in fact, is also one of the characteristics of creative  pedagogical environments.  Another important factor is the  learning climate of the classroom,  which is closely connected to the  nature of the relationships between teachers and learners. It is vital for optimal creative learning that 
 everyone feels comfortable and safe in the classroom. Additionally, when there should be mutual 

respect between teachers and 

students, collaboration is also an important factor for supporting children’s creativity in a natural way of working.

 

As  drama  teachers  aim  to  give  and  create  space  and  time  for  pupils’  ideas  and  creative  solutions  in  drama  teaching, the teachers need to have a capacity for rapid decision-making, group management skills, tolerance of incompleteness and the ability to create a positive learning atmosphere (Toivanen 2013; Toivanen, Halkilahti & Ruismäki 2013). To be able to take account of students' perspectives in effective and intuitive decision-making processes,  teachers  need  to  be  holistically  present.  Being  present  means  giving  up  the  normal  social  roles,  but  concentrating  totally  on  and  participating  in  the  interaction  of  drama  class.  This  requires  transformation  of  teacher’s role and taking part in the aesthetic transformation of drama (Juncker 2015). When the students realize that  their  teacher  is  present,  listening  and  reacting  to  their  initiatives,  a  positive  atmosphere  of  mutual  trust  is  promoted.  Rodgers  and  Raider-Roth  (2006)  have  extensively  studied  theories  and  research  related  to  ‘presence  in  teaching’. They define the teacher’s presence as “a state of alert awareness, receptivity and connectedness to the mental,  emotional  and  physical  workings  of  both  the  individual  and  the  group  in  the  context  of  their  learning  

562 Anna Lehtonen et al.  /  Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences   217  ( 2016 )  558 – 566 environments  and  the  ability  to  respond  with  a  considered  and  compassionate  best  next  step”    (Rodgers  &  Raider-Roth 2006, 266). They talk about “reflective teaching” and “connected teaching” and note that this kind of  teaching  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  series  of  behaviors  and  skills,  as  such  a  presence  also  involves  self-knowledge,  trust,  relationship,  compassion,  empathy  and  authenticity  (Rodgers  &  Raider-Roth  2006,  266,  274‒275).  The reflective and connected teaching of Rodgers & Raider-Roth (2006) well describes the interaction that a drama teacher should strive for. Student-centered learning requires that a teacher should have a holistic presence and sensitivity to recognize their learners’ messages. From the learners’ point of view teachers should be present and  respond  skillfully  to  their  needs,  strengths  and  experiences.  It  is  all  about  having  a  feeling  of  being  secure  and  being  able  to  take  risks.  When  the  participants  have  this  feeling  drama  lessons  are  opportunities  for  the  learners to discover themselves by trying something new as a part of the group. (Rodgers & Raider-Roth 2006; Toivanen 2002; Toivanen, Malkamäki, Ilvonen & Ruismäki 2015.) To be able to respond to their learners’ needs, drama teachers should be aware of them. In an interaction event both sides want to know if the other can hear what they have to say or if their opinions and ideas are accepted. So both the teacher and the learners, observe each other to see how their expressions and actions are received. If the interaction in the teaching-studying-learning situation is mutual, the learners will feel comfortable to ask for help and share their ideas. And if the teacher is sensitive enough, the learners do not need to repeatedly seek the teacher’s help or approval because their problems were addressed the first time they were raised (Pianta, Paro & Hamre 2008; Rodgers & Raider-Roth 2006). In  drama  the  development  of  the  “feeling  of  security”  is  a  big  part  of  the  process.  The  teacher’s  presence/  sensitivity promotes trust among the students. Students need to have the feeling that they can trust the group and their teacher. Feelings of security and belonging to a group affect students’ self-confidence and thereby also their abilities to learn and support others (Heikkinen 2005; Rodgers & Raider-Roth 2006; Toivanen 2002).  Teachers need to be aware of their pupils’ needs, moods, interests, and capabilities, and allows this awareness to guide the way they behave with their pupils (Pianta et al. 2008; Rodgers & Raider-Roth 2006). In the drama class the teacher is not only a responsible leader but also a guiding co-learner. The teacher needs to be ready to become part of the group, to work and learn alongside the learners (Heikkinen 2005; McLauchlana &  Wintersa  2014;  Toivanen,  Rantala  &  Ruismäki  2009).  Drama  teaching  is  an  opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  create a personal relationship with the learners and break down the traditional space between teacher and pupils (Toivanen  et  al.  2009).  However  the  teacher's  role  as  the  leader  of  the  class  and  the  drama  work  is  important.  Learners  should  be  aware  of  the  rules  and  there  should  be  a  trusting  atmosphere  in  the  classroom.  The  teacher  might need to keep the activity manageable and goal oriented, if the students are not ready to take responsibility for and control of their actions.

Collaborative learning in drama class develops accountable dispositions between the students. When students recognize that their voices and opinions matter, they become an integral part of the dramatic process rather than actors  on  stages  solely  designed  according  to  the  teacher/director's  interests  (Swick  1999,74).    Creative  collaboration  and  student-centered  learning  requires  that  teachers  should  have  special  pedagogical  attitudes,  as  the distribution of the power of the director/teacher depends on a mutual respect in the group consisting of the students  and  the  teacher  and  a  commitment  to  the  process  of  dialogic  and  social  meaning  making  (Neelands  2009, 183). In  the  student-centered  learning  process  the  teacher  has  to  adjust  to  the  students’  learning  process  and  maintain  a  transformative  leadership  (Österlind  2011;  Lehtonen  2013;  Lehtonen  2015).  Drama  work  requires  teachers at least to momently give up control and give power to the group, otherwise there would be no creative collaboration in the drama class. This requires the teacher to have the ability to manage unrest, uncertainty and unpredictable situations and tolerate ambiguity (Toivanen et al. 2009).  Why do some teachers express reluctance towards student-centered learning and neglect students’ ownership of their drama work? According to the research of Swick (1999) drama teachers as creative persons might want 

563 Anna Lehtonen et al.  /  Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences   217  ( 2016 )  558 – 566 to  fulfill  their  own  artistic  expression.  In  order  to  realize  productive  student  ownership  when  teachers  create  a  student-centered  environment,  they  must  value  their  pupils'  contributions  to  the  lesson  more  than  their  own.  In  addition liberating the creativity of the whole class might result in chaos rather than productivity if the class is not carefully managed. It might be frightening or frustrating for the teachers to attempt to take into account every idea  each  pupil  proposes  within  the  dramatic  process.  While  each  opinion  matters,  the  reality  is  that  it  is  not  possible  to  use  them  all.  Consequently,  for  the  sake  of  class  control,  clarity,  and  time  management  teachers  prefer  to  have  stronger  leadership  and  give  up  student-centered  approaches  (Swick  1999,  75-76).  In  addition  some students often test their ownership of drama work by resisting, which might not be easy for the teacher or the rest of the class to bear  (Lehtonen 2015). When critically reflecting on and looking at drama class from the students’ perspective, it is worth examining the concepts of agency and ownership. What kinds of students' agency does the learning situation promote and does  it  enable  the  development  of  student  ownership?  (Lehtonen,  2015).  Agency  means  an  individual’s  or  a  group’s feeling that they are participating in a collective action and making a difference, i.e., that things are not just happening to them (Kumpulainen, Krokfors, Lipponen, Tissari, Hilppö & Rajala, 2010). Active agency can be  classified  as  either  positive:  making  initiatives  or  supporting  collective  creation  or  negative:  resisting  or  deconstructive (Rainio 2008). In drama work it is possible to turn negative resisting agency into a positive force (Rainio  2008).  For  example  resistance  can  be  used  as  tension  in  creating  drama  and  resisting  attitudes  towards  drama  work  can  be  noted  as  expressions  of  emotional  investment  and  engagement  (Rainio  2008;  Lehtonen  2015). The concept of ownership illustrates how the experiences of learning drama become personally meaningful. Ownership revolves around critical questions of collaboration, which are ideas that are included in drama work, such as: Who has the power to influence the creative collaboration? When a child is personally accountable for an aspect of the drama action, it leads to the individual taking responsibility. When a teacher gives young people a chance to invest personally and connect with the drama work, it helps students to gain a sense of empowerment and  control  of  their  abilities  to  make  practical  choices  on  their  own  (Swick  1999).  When  students  exert  ownership  in  their  work  in  the  drama  classroom,  their  perceptions  count  and  they  are  the  ones  who  hold  the  answers  (Swick  1999,78).  Then  the  teacher  can  lean  on  the  group’s  capacity  to  collaborate  and  solve  the  evolving  problems  together  (Lehtonen  2013).  This  demands  patience  and  time  both  on  the  parts  of  the  teacher  and the participants to listen to the different voices and negotiate. Unfortunately, this is not often possible in our typical hectic school life. Development  of  ownership  is  often  a  time-consuming  process  especially,  if  the  students  are  not  used  to  student-centered  learning,  the  teacher  needs  to  adjust  to  the  learning  process  of  the  group.  Having  an  understanding of group dynamics and the challenges of empty spaces might help teachers handle the situations and  the  creative  dynamics  of  collaboration.    Building  mutual  trust  is  essential  for  successful  student-centered  learning.  Mutual  trust  makes  it  possible  for  teachers  and  students  to  explore  the  benefits  of  ownership.  When  mutual trust is achieved, then the teacher can trust that the class will work toward the proposed objective, and the students can trust that their concerns and ideas will be respected (O'Toole 1999, 103). (2)

Some students coming into school at Year 7 may not have previous experience of drama. Certainly many of them will not have been involved in drama as a discrete subject, and of devoting a whole study period to the subject! It is important that these students understand the basic drama methods, what is expected of them, and how they should respond as quickly and effectively as possible. There are many creative games and simple drama activities which will help teachers to encourage this understanding.

Drama stimulates the imagination, encourages creative thinking, and allows students to explore issues and life experiences in a safe and supportive environment. To this end, it is vital to create an atmosphere of security, trust and concentration in all drama lessons. Enforcing a Code of Conduct will help to set the tone for each lesson, will focus students and will ensure that they feel safe whilst exploring.

Drama also promotes self-esteem and provides all students with a sense of achievement, regardless of academic ability. These feelings will influence all other aspects of learning, school, home and social life. Drama is an invaluable subject for teaching social skills and communication skills, for raising self-awareness, developing empathy for and understanding of other people, places and cultures. It allows young people to be both introspective and outward-looking – and it’s also about having fun! (16)

Students explore the rhythm of the poem, the concept of what it means to be a hero, the language of the poem, its characters and story and – most importantly – the strong contrasts it presents. 

Students will experience speaking aloud, mime, freezes, thought-tracking, improvisation, tableau and, finally, they will give a mini performance of the poem. It’s a powerful and inspirational session. 

The lesson can be completed in 75 minutes and the resulting performance given on topic days or in assembly. (10)

These two daughters took an instant dislike to their new sister. They shouted at Ella and bossed her around, making her do all the work and not treating her like a sister at all. Even when she'd finished her jobs, Ella wasn't invited to join the rest of the family. Instead she had to spend her evenings in the kitchen, getting dusty and dirty from raking the dying cinders in the fire to try and keep warm. The stepsisters used to mock her and call her 'Cinders Ella'. Eventually the name stuck and Ella became known as Cinderella.

But, despite her unhappy life, Cinderella didn't complain. After her mother died, her father's business had struggled and they had become very poor. His new wife had brought a large fortune to their marriage. Cinderella didn't want to make life difficult for her father, or cause him any more unhappiness. So she accepted the insults from her stepsisters and tackled the hard work without protest.

One day the stepsisters and their mother received an invitation to a ball at the palace. They were thrilled and so excited. Everyone knew that the prince had been instructed by his father, the king, to find a wife. Perhaps he would choose one of the ladies at the ball as his bride!

The two sisters immediately began to try to make themselves as beautiful as possible, in the hope of catching the prince's eye. They bought the most expensive dresses, the most elaborate jewellery and had their hair styled in the most exotic way. However, all of their efforts made very little difference as, unlike Cinderella, the stepsisters were not naturally beautiful!

The evening of the ball finally arrived and, as her stepsisters drove off in their carriage, Cinderella sat in the kitchen in her usual place next to the fire, quietly crying to herself.

"What's the matter, Cinderella?" a gentle voice asked.

Cinderella sobbed, "I wish I could go to the ball myself."

"And so you shall," the voice said.

Cinderella looked up, startled and a little bit afraid. A beautiful lady was standing beside her.

"Do not be afraid, sweet Cinderella," the beautiful lady said, "I am your fairy godmother, and I am here to see that your wish comes true."

Cinderella gasped with joy, amazed that someone could be so kind to her. The beautiful fairy godmother smiled again at Cinderella, and then became quiet business-like.

"Now, Cinderella, we have no time to waste if you are going to make it to the ball! Fetch me a pumpkin."

Cinderella looked puzzled, but did as she was told. The fairy godmother touched the pumpkin with her magic wand, and it suddenly turned into a wonderful golden coach.

"Now find me six mice…"

Cinderella fetched them as quickly as possible, and her fairy godmother touched them again with her magic wand, turning them into beautiful horses to pull the coach.

"Now fetch me a rat please…"

Upon Cinderella's return with a large brown rat, the fairy godmother used her magic wand to turn it into a coachman in a golden-braided uniform.

"And six lizards please…"

The fairy godmother turned them into splendidly dressed footmen to run behind the coach.

When the magic had been completed, the fairy godmother turned to Cinderella with a smile. With one final touch of her magic wand, the rags Cinderella had been wearing became a dress so magnificent and beautiful that it took your breath away. In Cinderella's wonderful golden hair sparkled tiny jewels and on her feet glittered a pair of delicate glass slippers. Cinderella threw her arms around the fairy godmother and thanked her over and over again for the wonderful transformation.

"It is unnecessary to thank me, Cinderella," the fairy godmother said, "just make sure that you have a marvelous time at the ball."

"I will," said Cinderella happily, "oh, I will."

"I must give you one word of warning, though," the fairy godmother continued. "You must be home by midnight - for on the final stroke of twelve o'clock, your dress will turn back into rags, your coach to a pumpkin, your horses to mice and everything will be just as before. If you do not leave before the final stroke of midnight, everyone will see your transformation back into poor little Cinderella. Please remember what I say. Now, off you go and enjoy yourself."

That night Cinderella was the belle of the ball. Everyone wondered who she was. They all thought that maybe she was a princess from a faraway land. All of the ladies, including her two stepsisters, admired her beautiful dress and begged her for the name of her dressmaker. The gentlemen all wanted to kiss her hand and dance with her. Eventually the prince asked Cinderella to dance with him and, stunned by her beauty and gentle nature, he fell in love with her at first sight. No one else was able to dance with Cinderella - or the prince - after that. The minutes whirled away and Cinderella had the most wonderful evening of her life.

Suddenly the clock began to strike twelve and Cinderella remembered the words of her fairy godmother. She was terrified that the prince and all the people at the ball would see her become poor, raggedy Cinderella again. So, without even a final goodbye, she picked up her dress and ran as fast as she could out of the palace and away from the ball.

"Come back!" the prince called, but Cinderella carried on running, tripping on the palace steps in her haste to be away and losing one of her delicate glass slippers as she did so. With no time to stop and pick it up, she left it where it lay and continued running home. By the time she reached the street, her dress was rags again. That night, back in her usual place by the fire in the kitchen, Cinderella cried herself to sleep. She knew that life would never be so wonderful again.

But that wasn't true.

As he ran after her, the prince found Cinderella's slipper on the palace steps. He knew that the delicate glass shoe belonged to the woman he wanted to marry. So the next morning, the prince went all around the town from house to house, asking every lady to try the slipper on.

"If I don't find the beautiful stranger who wore it last night, I shall be unhappy forever and will never marry at all," he said.

The slipper did not fit any of the feet offered to the prince. He was beginning to resign himself to a life alone when, at last, he reached Cinderella's house. The two stepsisters were eager to prove to the prince that they were his intended bride! They pushed and pulled and squeezed and tried to make the glass slipper fit. But it was no use, their feet were just too big and too wide.

Broken-hearted, for this was the last house left for him to try, the prince was about to leave when he noticed what he thought was a poor servant girl, dusty and dirty from raking the fire cinders.

"Madam," he said gallantly, but without much hope, "why don't you try the slipper on too?"

"Her? Don't be silly!" the stepsisters cried together. "She didn't go to the ball, she was at home in her rightful place by the kitchen fire!"

But the prince insisted. He could see, underneath the dirt, how beautiful Cinderella was.

The stepsisters held their breath as the prince placed the slipper on Cinderella's foot and, of course, it fitted her perfectly. Spitting with rage and jealousy, the two sisters could only look on as, realizing with joy that he had found his beautiful stranger again, the prince knelt and asked Cinderella to marry him.

And Cinderella happily said yes! (12)

When the bear was fairly out of sight, his companion came down out of the tree and asked what it was that the bear had whispered to him, 'For', he said, 'I observed he put his mouth very close to your ear'. 'Why', replied the other, 'it was no great secret. He only bade me have a care how I kept company with those who, when they get into difficulty, leave their friends in the lurch.' (13)

This play is intended for use as a classroom resource, but could easily be performed as part of a whole school history day.

The Pied Piper of Hamelin - 
The Pied Piper of Hamelin develops Robert Browning's narrative poem into a complete performance, using several narrators and inserting scenes which support and expand the original text. The play has elements of comedy, encourages children to explore the issue of breaking promises and provides opportunities to include cast members in non-speaking roles.

Whistle As You Walk Away - 
The Pied Piper of Hamelin develops Robert Browning's narrative poem into a complete performance, using several narrators and inserting scenes which support and expand the original text. The play has elements of comedy, encourages children to explore the issue of breaking promises and provides opportunities to include cast members in non-speaking roles. (9)

And Then We Were At War... - 

It is vital to create an atmosphere of security, trust and concentration. Drama promotes self-esteem and provides all students with a sense of achievement regardless of academic ability.

It's about social skills, communication skills and having fun - we learn by doing! (20)

While the terms “auditory” and “visual” learners have become somewhat more common, there are many other types of learners.

While most people cross the lines of learning styles and can benefit from many types of learning, most people have a dominant learning style that helps them grasp and remember concepts more easily.

Understanding and adapting to the different learning styles is crucial for anyone involved in any form of instruction, whether that’s teaching in a classroom, parenting, leading a Boy Scout troop or teaching Sunday School.

Visual, aural, verbal (reading/writing) and kinesthetic are the most common categories that people use to define learning styles. One theory called “VARK” (an acronym for the four types), claims that most individuals can fall into one of those four categories of learning. VARK was first put forward by Neil Fleming, a New Zealander, in 1987.

In this article, we will also cover logical, social, solitary and naturalistic as they offer additional insight into the way that people learn.

Visual is the most common type of learning style. This type of learning includes a predisposition toward images, colors, graphs, pictures, maps, etc. In other words, they want something they can feast their eyes on.

STRENGTHS OF VISUAL LEARNERS

Visual learners can also be very good with spatial thinking and recalling images or places in their minds. Visual learners excel at being detail-oriented because they notice very small changes in their surroundings. They also tend to do well with balance and alignment.

HOW TO CONNECT WITH A VISUAL LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM

Typically, a classroom is already geared toward visual learners. PowerPoints, writing on a whiteboard, maps, graphs, posters, pictures and many other visual aids are typical in a learning environment.

This makes sense since visual learners account for up to 65% of the population, according to Social Science Research Network.

Visual learners need text or long speeches mixed with something they can see. If they are watching a presentation, a PowerPoint with graphs and images would greatly help them receive the information and remember it later.

When it comes to listening or reading, visual learners do better if the speaker or text includes imagery that they can imagine. If they can visualize what a speaker is talking about, they can better retain that knowledge.

Aural learners love music and sounds of all kinds, but especially interesting ones like rhymes, rhythms and the spoken word. Auditory learners retain knowledge best through hearing information rather than seeing it.

STRENGTHS OF AUDITORY LEARNERS

Auditory learners are very good at repeating information back once they’ve heard it. They tend to be good at noticing people’s inflection and tone or subtle changes in their language. Auditory learners are good at picking up language, verbal communication and retaining long lectures. They can also be fantastic storytellers.

HOW TO CONNECT WITH AN AUDITORY LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM

According to some studies, auditory learners make up for about 30% of learners. While this isn’t as many students as visual, it still accounts for a large percentage of the population.

In the classroom, auditory learners benefit from things like lectures, music and speeches. They would be the type of person who could learn from a podcast and put what they’ve learned into action.

When giving class assignments, auditory learners will often do better hearing the assignment rather than seeing it on paper. They will also benefit from having an oral exam as opposed to a written one. Another strategy for auditory learners is to have them repeat back information to the teacher as often as possible as opposed to always writing information down. An auditory learner may not take as many notes as their visual peers.

People who excel at the verbal part of learning differ from visual learners because they are not discouraged by long texts. Verbal learners love language, whether written or spoken.

STRENGTHS OF VERBAL LEARNERS

People who are verbal learners are very good at absorbing information through the written word. They can take in vast amounts of complex written words and condense it into more easily digestible information.

HOW TO CONNECT WITH A VERBAL LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM

It isn’t as clear how many students fall into the verbal learner category. Previously, the VARK study only included three categories: Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic. They later included reading and writing as a separate category.

Verbal learners do very well with a lecture and note-taking types of teaching and they also excel at writing assignments and written tests.

A good strategy for verbal learners is to have them rewrite information into their own words. They do very well at research writing projects or writing projects in general. To help them with new concepts, it’s a good idea to include a written handout for them to review.

People in this category can also greatly benefit from the exuberant amount of information available on the internet. A verbal learner can easily pick up a lot of information quickly.

A kinesthetic learner is a person who learns through physical action. They learn through making something. They prefer tactile learning and hands-on practical experience.

STRENGTHS OF A KINESTHETIC LEARNER

Kinesthetic learners are good at picking up skills through active participation. They tend to be coordinated and do well at activities like building, sports, art or drama. They also are adept at learning by watching someone else. They’re likely to have great motor skills and hand-eye coordination.

HOW TO CONNECT TO A KINESTHETIC LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM

Kinesthetic learners reportedly make up about only 5% of the population. Therefore, many classroom environments are not geared toward kinesthetic learning. A student who responds to this type of learning style can come across as antsy and inattentive in the classroom. They may struggle to sit during long lectures or engaging in too much written or verbal learning.

Kinesthetic learners do best when they can physically get their hands on something or move in some way. Kinesthetic learners can be given some leeway to doodle or move a little so long as it is not disruptive to the class. It can be beneficial to have them be a helper in class with things like handing out assignments.

Mix up your class structure by breaking up lectures and sitting periods with physical movement. For younger learners, you can incorporate letters and numbers with movements and songs to get them learning while moving.

Another strategy is to use hands-on experiences to teach them something. Science is a great field for this because experiments and nature observation can be incorporated comfortably into the learning schedule.

People in the logical category are problem solvers. They see things in the realm of cause and effect. They like knowing that if A is true, B must follow. People with this learning style enjoy mathematical equations because math problems follow a logical flow. They also like patterns and logic problems.

STRENGTHS OF LOGICAL LEARNERS

Logical learners are excellent at seeing how things are interconnected. They can understand complex patterns, math problems, and excel at strategy games like chess. Logical learners tend to be attracted to science fields like chemistry, and they’re often very comfortable with technology and computer science fields as well.

HOW TO CONNECT TO A LOGICAL LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM

Logical learners like to understand the how and why something happened. They respond well to statistics and data and other hard facts. Science and math are preferable because they offer clear answers for how someone comes to a basic conclusion about something. In other words, these fields often offer definitive answers, or at least a course of action, to get to the answer.

Logical learners do best when the classroom is very structured. They tend to struggle more with open-ended questions and assignments. To help them connect to subjects that may not fit comfortably into the logical sphere, try to incorporate things that they can connect with. For history and geography, including statistics and graphs can be helpful. Explain how countries interact with one another and the reasons there are conflicts.

For fields like art, music and literature, try to find a more logical angle. For instance, logical learners might identify with the rules of poetry like the meter or rhyming patterns. They might be able to analyze the motivation of characters in books—if this character does this, this character will respond this way. It may not be within their natural comfort zone, but over time, it may connect to their logical style.

While it should be noted that any one of the six other (not solitary) learning styles can also be applied to a social learner, people within the social or interpersonal category tend to learn much better in a group atmosphere. This type of learner thrives in group projects and shines in social settings.

STRENGTHS OF A SOCIAL LEARNER

People in this category have strong communication skills and can pick up on verbal and nonverbal communication from the people around them. They can pick up on the emotions of other individuals and groups. In other words, social learners tend to have a high emotional IQ and may be the first to notice when someone else’s demeanor has changed. Social learners gravitate toward extracurricular activities and team sports and are energized by social interactions.

HOW TO CONNECT WITH A SOCIAL LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM

People who are social learners do well when they can bounce their ideas off of other people. To connect to social learners it’s a good idea to include class presentations, group discussion and group projects, as they will feel most comfortable in this type of setting.

Social learners may struggle to sit quietly and absorb information during long lectures. To help with this, it may be helpful to break it up with small group discussions or ask them to repeat back information in their own words.

While the opposite of social, a solitary learner is similar in that it can include all the other learning styles, but people in this category learn better alone.

STRENGTHS OF A SOLITARY LEARNER

Solitary learners are often self-directed, quiet and independent. These people tend to be very good at identifying and understanding their own emotions and feelings. They value learning independently and quietly.

HOW TO CONNECT WITH A SOLITARY LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM

Solitary learners benefit from time alone to work through problems and new ideas. They do well when they’re given time they can spend being introspective and working through issues.

Some strategies that work well for solitary learners is encouraging them to keep a journal, giving them projects that they can work on alone and allowing them to work independently when possible.

They are likely to respond better to writing assignments and projects as opposed to public speaking or in group projects. If group projects are necessary, they would do well to be given a section of the project that they can contribute on their own time.

A naturalistic learner is similar to a kinesthetic learner in the sense that they like hands-on experience and do better with physical involvement as opposed to learning from a textbook. The key distinction between the two is that the naturalistic learner prefers to do their hands-on learning primarily outdoors.

STRENGTHS OF A NATURALISTIC LEARNER

Naturalistic learners are curious and investigative. They can take hands-on experience from nature to understand the world around them and draw conclusions about plants, animals and the environment. They tend to be very good observers and are naturally comfortable with animals.

HOW TO CONNECT TO A NATURALISTIC LEARNER IN THE CLASSROOM (OR OUT OF IT)

Naturalistic learners will do very well if they can have some time outside actually exploring nature. Gardening, nature walks, field trips and park trips are all ways to get naturalistic learners outside. Like kinesthetic learners, naturalistic learners may enjoy science as it lends itself well to outdoor exploration.

How do you engage a naturalistic learner when they can’t leave the classroom? Consider bringing nature indoors. Grow plants, have a class pet or create a tiny ecosystem. If you’re studying the various forms of rocks, bring in samples that they can touch.

Students who have a naturalistic learning style enjoy reporting back the information they’ve learned from the world. You can take this natural desire and apply it to other fields of study like writing. Have your nature-friendly student write reports about things that they are interested in like animals and the outdoors. They can also develop their reading skills by reading books related to nature.

All people approach learning in different ways and from different perspectives. Most people have a range of learning types that work for them but usually have a type of learning that stands out from the rest.

Since not all people are the same, it’s helpful for educators to practice multiple types of learning styles in their classroom to meet students where they’re at and equip them for success. (29)

The principles are organized into five areas of psychological functioning: cognition and learning; motivation; social and emotional dimensions; context and learning; and assessment. Each of the individual principles listed in the document includes an explanation of the concept, its relevance for instruction, specific tips for teachers and a comprehensive list of related references.

Although the Top 20 principles are designed to apply psychological science broadly to pre-K to 12 teaching, they can also be utilized specifically to enhance the curriculum of introduction to psychology courses and help students develop skills that will help them learn more effectively in all of their classes. Below is a review of the principles and potential applications for their use in teaching high school psychology.

Cognition and learning: How do students think and learn?

A great deal of research from cognitive and educational psychology has discovered how thinking and learning can be improved in the classroom. The first eight principles highlight some of the most important findings on teacher practices that impact student growth.

1. Growth mindset

Research shows that learners who hold the growth mindset that intelligence is malleable, and success is related to effort level are more likely to remain focused on goals and persist despite setbacks. A great way to start off the year in a psychology class is with a discussion of growth versus fixed mindsets because it helps students understand how their beliefs about intelligence can influence their own academic success. For more information about fixed and growth mindsets and how they impact student performance, see the TED talk by psychologist Carol Dweck. A TED talk by Angela Lee Duckworth discusses how student learning can be examined in the context of motivation and illustrates how the personality trait of grit, which is correlated with success, can be developed through teaching of a growth mindset. In addition to the numerous specific ideas in the Top 20 document for how instructors can encourage students to develop a growth mindset, there is also an APA online module on praise that offers excellent examples of how instructors can best frame communication with students to foster a growth mindset.

2. Prior knowledge

Research shows that prior knowledge influences both conceptual growth and conceptual change in students. With conceptual growth, students add to their existing knowledge, and with conceptual change, students correct misconceptions or errors in existing knowledge. Facilitating conceptual growth or change requires first obtaining a baseline level of student knowledge prior to the start of each unit through formative assessment. One way to assess prior knowledge involves starting the unit with a short list of five to ten true/false statements and having a class discussion about the results. The results of this discussion can guide the selection of assignments and activities that will be appropriate for facilitating either conceptual growth or conceptual change. Prior knowledge can be used to help students incorporate background knowledge and draw connections between units during the course.

3. Limits of stage theories

Research indicates that cognitive development and learning are not limited by general stages of development. It is important for instructors teaching Piaget’s cognitive stage theory to also reference the limitations of this approach. Psychology curricula should highlight the significance of Lev Vygotsky’s theory of zone of proximal development and the critical role that interactions with those who are more capable can have on learning and growth. Instructors can use this research to facilitate learning by designing instruction that utilizes scaffolding, differentiation and mixed ability grouping. It is also critical that the most advanced students have the opportunity to work with others who will challenge them, including other students or the instructor.

4. Facilitating context

Student growth and deeper learning are developed when instructors help students transfer learning from one context to another. Students will also be better able to generalize learning to new contexts if instructors invest time in focusing on deeper learning. One method of developing this skill is to have students use their understanding of a particular unit to generate potential solutions for real-world problems. APA Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools (TOPSS) offers an excellent example of this type of assignment with the problem-focused unit on childhood obesity (PDF, 260KB).

5. Practice

This principle details empirically based strategies that will help students more effectively encode learned materials into long-term memory. In addition to those in the memory unit, examples from this principle can help inform instruction throughout the course. By issuing formative assessment frequently through practice problems, activities and sample tests, instructors can help students increase their knowledge, skills and confidence. Additionally, instructors conducting practice activities at spaced intervals (distributed practice) will help students achieve greater increases in long-term retrieval ability. Practice tests should include open-ended questions that require both the retrieval of existing knowledge and the challenge of applying that information to new situations or contexts, thus also incorporating principle four. See also the APA teaching module on practice for knowledge acquisition.

6. Feedback

This principle highlights the importance of instructor responses and indicates the best manner in which to deliver feedback to students in order to maintain or increase motivation to learn. Providing students with clear, explanatory and timely feedback is important for learning. The CPSE publication titled “Using Classroom Data to Give Systematic Feedback to Students to Improve Learning” provides additional information about feedback methods including five key strategies.

7. Self-regulation

Self-regulation skills, including attention, organization, self-control, planning and memory strategies, improve learning and engagement and can be taught through direct instruction, modeling and classroom organization. Teachers can model organizational methods and assist students by highlighting learning targets at the start and conclusion of lessons, using classroom calendars, highlighting difficult concepts that will require more practice, breaking large projects into manageable components, using well designed rubrics and allowing sufficient processing time through questioning, summarizing and practice. Psychology students can apply this research to their own study habits such as learning to practice self-control by limiting the distractions presented by cell phones and social media. Students can also be encouraged to design experiments related to the limits of attention and discuss the practical implications of their results.

8. Creativity

Creativity is considered a critical skill for the technology driven world of the 21st century and because it is not a stable trait, it can be taught, nurtured and increased. This principle describes specific methods of structuring assignments to increase creativity and ideas for how to model creative problem solving. Creativity in the psychology classroom can include opportunities for student-designed research projects, video projects, demonstrations and model building. The TOPSS unit lesson plans include a variety of ideas for creatively engaging students.

Motivation: What motivates students?

Students who are motivated and interested in learning are more successful. CPSE has outlined the most important ways to help increase student motivation and engagement.

 9. Intrinsic motivation

This principle is directed at how instructors can increase intrinsic motivation through classroom practices and activities that support the fundamental need of students to feel autonomous. It is important to note that not everything of importance is intrinsically motivating to all students and that there is a place for extrinsic motivation in education. During the unit on motivation, when intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are typically discussed, students can examine their personal motivations and how they influence their success. Lastly, students can examine the research related to the overjustification effect, also discussed in this principle.

For more information about motivation and the over-justification effect and how they impact student performance, see the TED talk by psychologist Dan Pink.

10. Mastery goals

Students who form mastery goals are focused on attaining new skills or increasing existing ability, but students who develop performance goals typically are focused simply on showing adequate ability. When students set performance goals, they have a tendency to avoid tasks that might expose weaknesses and end up missing opportunities that would foster the development of new skills. Those with mastery goals are more likely to be motivated to learn new skills and achieve higher levels of competence. Principle 10 provides specific methods for organizing instruction that can be used to help students choose mastery over performance goals although under certain circumstances such as competitions, performance goals may be more appropriate.

11. Teacher expectations

The beliefs that teachers have about their students affect students’ opportunities to learn, their motivation and their learning outcomes. Psychological research has uncovered ways for teachers to communicate high expectations for all students and avoid creating negative self-fulfilling prophecies. When discussing self-fulfilling prophecies and the Rosenthal and Jacobson study during the social psychology unit, Principle 11 can be used by teachers to show students how they can prevent negative self-fulfilling prophecies.

12. Goal setting

This principle explains how students can use short-term (proximal), specific and moderately challenging goals to increase self-efficacy and build toward larger goals. Students should maintain a record of progress toward their goals which is monitored by both the student and the instructor. After students experience success with moderately challenging proximal goals, they will be more likely to become intermediate risk takers, which is one of the most significant attributes present in achievement-oriented individuals. As a result, they will be capable of achieving larger distal goals. Tips based on this principle can easily be used to create engaging class assignments for the motivation unit in the introduction to psychology curriculum.

Social and emotional dimensions: Why are social context, interpersonal relationships and emotional well-being important to student learning?

These principles reflect the importance of relationships, culture, community and well-being on learning. They focus on how instructors can help students by fostering healthy relationships with them and an interest in their lives outside the classroom.

13. Social contexts

Principle 13 emphasizes how the various communities students belong to (e.g. families, peer groups, schools, neighborhoods) and their culture (e.g. shared language, beliefs, values and behavioral norms) influence learning. This principle is related specifically to many concepts from social psychology (e.g., norms, attribution theory, individualistic versus collectivist cultures) and provides suggestions for incorporating culture into every unit to increase student engagement and build stronger relationships. Introductory psychology classes can incorporate opportunities for students to engage with the larger community through service-learning projects, guest speakers and psychology clubs. TOPSS has developed a teaching module that includes background information and activities for expanding student understanding regarding culture and social contexts titled “An Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology .”

14. Interpersonal relationships

This principle provides detailed and specific guidelines for improving both teacher-student and student-peer relationships in the classroom. See also the APA teaching module on improving students’ relationships with teachers for essential supports for learning based on this principle.

15. Well-being

Various components of emotional well-being can be included across many psychology units, such as self-concept and self-esteem (social psychology), self-efficacy and locus of control (motivation and personality) and happiness and coping skills (emotion and stress). TOPSS has developed a teaching module that includes background information and activities related topositive psychology  (PDF, 164KB) and the science of improving emotional well-being.

Context and learning: How can the classroom best be managed?

The two principles related to classroom management emphasize how to develop a classroom climate that enhances learning.

16. Classroom conduct

Numerous research-based ideas are presented for both correcting inappropriate student behaviors and for establishing appropriate replacement behaviors at both the classroom and school-wide levels. See also the APA teaching module on classroom management and the APA video modules on classroom management.

17. Expectations and support

This principle highlights practical techniques to create a culture of high academic achievement and positive classroom behavior at both the classroom and school levels. The Top 20 document references information about restorative practices and social and emotional learning that includes a variety of specific and practical strategies for building teacher-student relationships.

Assessment: How is student progress assessed?

The three principles devoted to the process of student evaluation discuss methods for creating and implementing valid and fair assessments that contribute to student learning.

18. Formative and summative assessment

Formative assessments are typically used as a part of everyday practice and are given either prior to or during instruction. Such tools are designed to collect evidence regarding the progress of student learning in order to provide effective guidance. Summative assessments, on the other hand, result in an overall evaluation of student learning or program effectiveness and are typically utilized at the end of a unit or course thus having more limited impact on current instruction. Frequent use of formative assessment accompanied by immediate and specific instruction helps students achieve learning goals and assume a greater responsibility of their own learning process. The analysis of data collected through formative assessment allows the instructor to differentiate instruction and provide appropriate individualized support. See also the APA teaching module on formative assessment.

19. Assessment development

Formative and summative assessments need to be evaluated for both reliability and validity. The Top 20 document provides instructors with four essential questions that can be used to evaluate the overall validity of a particular assessment for measuring student learning and tips for measuring reliability. Instructors can improve the reliability and validity of formative and summative assessments by aligning them to learning targets, utilizing item analysis, discussing the results with other educators, and monitoring outcomes for discrepancies across groups or subgroups of students. During the unit on intelligence and individual differences, it can be helpful to demonstrate to students how the exams they are taking can be evaluated for content validity by illustrating how the assessments are aligned with learning targets or the National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula.

20. Assessment evaluation

Effective teaching requires that instructors be able to accurately interpret test results and clearly communicate the results to students and parents. Students can use what they learn about testing and statistics to evaluate the various assessments given in class for reliability and validity. Discussions of descriptive statistics are more meaningful when students examine their own assessments.

Certainly there will be debate about the Top 20 principles, and many research-based educational practices are not included in the document. Although this is not an exhaustive list of educational psychological research, it does provide an important starting point for improving teaching and learning outcomes. The Top 20 principles were vetted over many years based on major documents related to the science of teaching and learning, and the purpose of the project was not to provide a comprehensive list, but a prioritized one. These principles are helpful for the instructor but can also be incorporated into the psychology curriculum as examples of how applied psychology can be used to solve real-world problems. At the same time, these principles will help students develop skills to learn more effectively in all of their classes. (30)

Children like to move and to interact with others. In drama we ask them to do exactly this. Rather than sitting still and listening they are encouraged to move, speak and respond to one another. Students who are challenged by reading and writing (including those with English as a second language) often respond more positively to the imaginative and multisensory learning offered by drama. This in turn helps them develop such skills as creativity, enquiry, communication, empathy, self-confidence, cooperation, leadership and negotiation. Most importantly, drama activities are fun – making learning both enjoyable and memorable.

Drama is ideal for cross-curricular learning and is a valuable tool for use in many subject areas. In particular, drama develops literacy skills – supporting speaking and listening, extending vocabulary and encouraging pupils to understand and express different points of view. Dramatic activity motivates children to write for a range of purposes.

Drama gives children opportunities to explore, discuss and deal with difficult issues and to express their emotions in a supportive environment. It enables them to explore their own cultural values and those of others, past and present. It encourages them to think and act creatively, thus developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills that can be applied in all areas of learning. Through drama, children are encouraged to take responsible roles and make choices – to participate in and guide their own learning. Teachers can take a more open-ended approach, concentrating on the process of learning at least as much as – if not more than – the product. (3)

Art can be used as a way of reflecting on drama activity alongside, or as an alternative to, writing and discussion. Drama can help to spark children’s creativity and lead them into imaginative and vibrant artwork. Incorporate art into drama by doing collective drawing in groups alongside the drama activities to develop storylines or explore characters and situations.

Geography

Cultural and environmental issues linked to geography can easily be explored through drama. Teacher in role and role on the wall can be used to present a character from a particular locality and to examine an issue from their perspective. This can lead on to role-play with pupils working in pairs or small groups to deepen their understanding. Still images, tableaux and soundscapes can be used to create the atmosphere of different locations and environments.

History

Characters from any historical period can be examined through hot seating, role-play and role on the wall. Tableaux, improvisation and thought tracking can help to bring historical accounts, illustrations and artwork to life. Key decision-making moments for historical characters can be explored using conscience alley.

Mathematics

Maths makes a lot more sense when it is applied to real (or fictional) situations. For younger children, this can be through role-play in shop or restaurant situations. Journeys across the sea, through space or around the world offer potential for acting and storytelling which can include mathematical activities such as calculating journey times and duration, quantities of food and fuel and recording of temperature. Mathematical patterns can be demonstrated and explored through physical movement and dance. Pupils are more likely to remember geometric shapes if they have made them with their own bodies in ten second objects. When forming groups, ask pupils to get into even or odd-numbers. Children can even become human bar graphs.

Personal and Social Education

Drama techniques such as conscience alley and image theatre offer valuable opportunities for pupils to share their opinions and explain their views. Role-play and improvisation allow them to discover how their behaviour can affect others. Group negotiation and discussion helps to encourage such key skills as listening, working cooperatively and learning to respect one another’s similarities and differences.

Science and Technology

Science learning can be extended through activities using dance, mime, movement and ten second objects to explore physical forces such as gravity, friction or magnetism, or to represent the action of molecules, planets, geological phenomena or electrical circuits. A journey through the body gives great potential for storytelling and drama. Pupils can model food chains or create human bar graphs to display living representations of scientific results. The human aspect of science is particularly suitable for exploration through drama. Where do you stand? helps to dissect moral dilemmas. Role play, improvisation and teacher in role can explore how human activity affects living things and the environment, highlighting controversial ethical issues. This can lead on to improvised drama such as the enacting of documentary TV programmes, debates and discussions. Technology can help to extend and develop drama activities through the use of multimedia, such as photography, video, animation and sound recording. (3)

 

The sharp learning curve experienced by children as they enter Year 1 can sometimes be bewildering, but simple drama games and exercises can support their learning in an enjoyable way. It is essential, for example, that children at this stage of their development learn to listen and respond to instructions and many drama games contain this element of learning as an implicit part of the activities.

Children of five and six also recognise and respond to familiar, or traditional stories and these can be extremely useful if used as a stimulus for drama in the classroom. In Year 1 children work best in pairs or in a whole group setting. They will happily improvise, or act out, stories and poems as a whole group and love to perform whole group mimes or dramatic movement pieces.

Many life skills and transferable skills are learnt through drama – listening carefully to instructions; responding appropriately; respecting other opinions; working together; considering other viewpoints; making presentations; speaking clearly and with purpose, and so on – and this learning, plus an increase in self-confidence and self-awareness, is what makes drama such a fantastic teaching tool at Key Stage 1. (4)

This is a great lesson for linking to a project on the seasons or for a PE session. It runs for 20-30 minutes and does not require any equipment, but needs a hall or large space for it to work effectively. This lesson plan includes suggested follow-on tasks and activities. (5)

One morning it was Big Bear's turn to make the breakfast. He ladled the porridge into the bowls, just the right amount in each. But when they sat down to eat, the porridge was far too hot. The three bears decided to go for a walk while it cooled.

Two minutes after they had set off, who should come past their house but a little girl called Goldilocks. Goldilocks was a naughty child who always did exactly what she wanted. She shouldn't even have been in the woods (her mummy had sent her to the shop to buy some milk). But there she was and she knew the bears were out walking. She tried the door. It wasn't locked, so in she went.

Goldilocks spied what was on the table. "Porridge!" She licked her lips. "My favourite!" She tried the porridge in Big Bear's bowl first. "Ow!" She cried. "That's far too hot." She spat it out. Next she tried the porridge in Middle-sized Bear's bowl. "Ugh!" She said. "That's far too cold!" She spat that out too. Last she tried the porridge in Little Bear's bowl. "Mmm!" She said. "That's just right!" And she gobbled it all up.

Then, because she needed a rest after all her wandering about in the woods, Goldilocks tried Big Bear's chair. "That's far too hard," she said. "No good to me." Then she sat in Middle-sized Bear's chair. "That's much too soft," she said. "Very uncomfortable." Finally, she tried Little Bear's chair. "Just right," she said. But as she made herself more comfortable, the chair collapsed and completely broke apart!

But Goldilocks was determined to have a rest so upstairs she went and opened the bedroom door. First she tried Big Bear's bed, but it was too lumpy. Next she tried Middle-sized Bear's bed but that was too hard and uncomfortable. Last she tried Little Bear's bed. It was perfect! Without even taking off her shoes, Goldilocks tucked herself in and went straight to sleep.

Meanwhile the bears returned home from their walk. They hung their coats up neatly and went to eat their porridge. Except, except…

"Who's been eating my porridge?" Big Bear growled. "They've even left the spoon in it." "And who's been eating my porridge?" Asked Middle-sized Bear. "And who's been eating my porridge, and eaten it all up?" Little Bear sobbed. The three bears looked about. Someone had been in their house without permission and they didn't like that one little bit.

"Who's been sitting in my chair," Big Bear growled, "and thrown my cushion onto the floor!" "Who's been sitting in my chair," growled Middle-sized Bear, "and made my cushion all squashed!" "Who's been sitting in my chair," sobbed Little Bear, "they've broken it all up!" And he cried even louder.

"Sshh!" Big Bear said. "What's that noise?" The three bears listened. "It's someone snoring," said Middle-sized Bear. The three bears looked at each other. "Whoever it is, they're still here!" Little Bear said. The three bears crept upstairs.

They went into the bedroom. "Who's been lying on my bed," Big Bear growled, "my bed covers are all creased!" "Who's been lying on my bed," grumbled Middle-sized Bear, "the pillows are all messed up!" "Who's been lying on my bed," squeaked Little Bear, "and, look, they're still lying in it!" He shouted.

Little Bear's shrill voice woke Goldilocks up with a start. She took one look at the bears standing in a row along one side of the bed, jumped out of the other side, ran through the door, down the stairs and out of the house as fast as her legs would carry her, trampling all over the flowers planted neatly in the garden as she went.

"How dare she sleep in my bed!" Exclaimed Little Bear. "She's trampled all over the flowers!" Grumbled Middle-sized Bear. "She hasn't even closed the gate!" Moaned Big Bear. And they went about putting their house in order again. (7)

The farmer’s wife took hold of the farmer around his waist. The farmer took hold of the turnip and they pulled and pulled, but could not pull it out of the ground. The turnip was just too big. So the farmer’s wife called her granddaughter to help.

The granddaughter took hold of the farmer’s wife around her waist, the farmer’s wife took hold of the farmer, the farmer took hold of the turnip and they all pulled and pulled. But the turnip was just too big and they could not pull it out. So the granddaughter called the dog over to help.

The dog took hold of the granddaughter, the granddaughter took hold of the farmer’s wife, the farmer’s wife took hold of the farmer, the farmer took hold of the turnip and they all pulled and pulled and pulled. But still they could not pull the turnip out. So the dog called the cat over to help.

The cat took hold of the dog, the dog took hold of the granddaughter, the granddaughter took hold of the farmer’s wife, the farmer’s wife took hold of the farmer, the farmer took hold of the turnip and they all pulled and pulled and pulled. But still they could not pull the turnip out. So the cat called the mouse over to help.

The mouse took hold of the cat, the cat took hold of the dog, the dog took hold of the granddaughter, the granddaughter took hold of the farmer’s wife, the farmer’s wife took hold of the farmer and the farmer took hold of the turnip. They all pulled and pulled and pulled some more and finally… out came the turnip and everyone fell over!

When they had all dusted themselves down the farmer said thank you to his wife, the farmer’s wife said thank you to her granddaughter, the granddaughter said thank you to the dog, the dog said thank you to the cat and the cat said thank you to the mouse. The farmer said, “I could not have done that without all of you helping me.” The old woman made a wonderful turnip soup to share and everyone was very happy. (8)

Children don’t need to have discrete drama lessons to be able to use drama methods for learning. Although it’s obviously great if some curriculum – and hall – time can be given over to drama, teachers can slip simple drama games and drama methods into everyday learning, for example, asking children to improvise a telephone conversation between two Vikings planning to invade Britain; writing and performing a diary entry for Florence Nightingale; playing the game In the Manner of the Word to learn about adverbs!

Drama will also help with developing vocabulary, language and communication skills and, at Key Stage 2, children are keen to express themselves fully and properly. They will also role play in a much more sophisticated manner, enabling teachers and pupils to explore contexts in a much more focussed way. They should also be able to respond to stimuli well and be self-aware enough to form opinions, to debate, to discuss, to evaluate and to assess their own – and others’ – work constructively.

In Key Stage 2 children will increasingly learn to work both individually and in different group sizes, and will be more willing (and keen!) to present their drama to the rest of the class. They will also be more willing to take an individual role in drama work. Drama at Key Stage 2 is also invaluable in tackling personal, social and emotional issues such as bullying, body image, friendships and relationships, transition to secondary school, and so on.

Many life skills and transferable skills are learnt through drama – listening carefully to instructions; responding appropriately; respecting other opinions; working together; considering and understanding other viewpoints; remembering and reciting; making presentations; speaking clearly and with purpose; empathy, and so on – and this learning, plus an increase in self-confidence, a heightened sense of empathy and a better developed self-awareness, is what makes drama such a fantastic teaching tool at Key Stage 2. (9)

Students explore the rhythm of the poem, the concept of what it means to be a hero, the language of the poem, its characters and story and – most importantly – the strong contrasts it presents. 

Students will experience speaking aloud, mime, freezes, thought-tracking, improvisation, tableau and, finally, they will give a mini performance of the poem. It’s a powerful and inspirational session. 

The lesson can be completed in 75 minutes and the resulting performance given on topic days or in assembly. (10)

These two daughters took an instant dislike to their new sister. They shouted at Ella and bossed her around, making her do all the work and not treating her like a sister at all. Even when she'd finished her jobs, Ella wasn't invited to join the rest of the family. Instead she had to spend her evenings in the kitchen, getting dusty and dirty from raking the dying cinders in the fire to try and keep warm. The stepsisters used to mock her and call her 'Cinders Ella'. Eventually the name stuck and Ella became known as Cinderella.

But, despite her unhappy life, Cinderella didn't complain. After her mother died, her father's business had struggled and they had become very poor. His new wife had brought a large fortune to their marriage. Cinderella didn't want to make life difficult for her father, or cause him any more unhappiness. So she accepted the insults from her stepsisters and tackled the hard work without protest.

One day the stepsisters and their mother received an invitation to a ball at the palace. They were thrilled and so excited. Everyone knew that the prince had been instructed by his father, the king, to find a wife. Perhaps he would choose one of the ladies at the ball as his bride!

The two sisters immediately began to try to make themselves as beautiful as possible, in the hope of catching the prince's eye. They bought the most expensive dresses, the most elaborate jewellery and had their hair styled in the most exotic way. However, all of their efforts made very little difference as, unlike Cinderella, the stepsisters were not naturally beautiful!

The evening of the ball finally arrived and, as her stepsisters drove off in their carriage, Cinderella sat in the kitchen in her usual place next to the fire, quietly crying to herself.

"What's the matter, Cinderella?" a gentle voice asked.

Cinderella sobbed, "I wish I could go to the ball myself."

"And so you shall," the voice said.

Cinderella looked up, startled and a little bit afraid. A beautiful lady was standing beside her.

"Do not be afraid, sweet Cinderella," the beautiful lady said, "I am your fairy godmother, and I am here to see that your wish comes true."

Cinderella gasped with joy, amazed that someone could be so kind to her. The beautiful fairy godmother smiled again at Cinderella, and then became quiet business-like.

"Now, Cinderella, we have no time to waste if you are going to make it to the ball! Fetch me a pumpkin."

Cinderella looked puzzled, but did as she was told. The fairy godmother touched the pumpkin with her magic wand, and it suddenly turned into a wonderful golden coach.

"Now find me six mice…"

Cinderella fetched them as quickly as possible, and her fairy godmother touched them again with her magic wand, turning them into beautiful horses to pull the coach.

"Now fetch me a rat please…"

Upon Cinderella's return with a large brown rat, the fairy godmother used her magic wand to turn it into a coachman in a golden-braided uniform.

"And six lizards please…"

The fairy godmother turned them into splendidly dressed footmen to run behind the coach.

When the magic had been completed, the fairy godmother turned to Cinderella with a smile. With one final touch of her magic wand, the rags Cinderella had been wearing became a dress so magnificent and beautiful that it took your breath away. In Cinderella's wonderful golden hair sparkled tiny jewels and on her feet glittered a pair of delicate glass slippers. Cinderella threw her arms around the fairy godmother and thanked her over and over again for the wonderful transformation.

"It is unnecessary to thank me, Cinderella," the fairy godmother said, "just make sure that you have a marvelous time at the ball."

"I will," said Cinderella happily, "oh, I will."

"I must give you one word of warning, though," the fairy godmother continued. "You must be home by midnight - for on the final stroke of twelve o'clock, your dress will turn back into rags, your coach to a pumpkin, your horses to mice and everything will be just as before. If you do not leave before the final stroke of midnight, everyone will see your transformation back into poor little Cinderella. Please remember what I say. Now, off you go and enjoy yourself."

That night Cinderella was the belle of the ball. Everyone wondered who she was. They all thought that maybe she was a princess from a faraway land. All of the ladies, including her two stepsisters, admired her beautiful dress and begged her for the name of her dressmaker. The gentlemen all wanted to kiss her hand and dance with her. Eventually the prince asked Cinderella to dance with him and, stunned by her beauty and gentle nature, he fell in love with her at first sight. No one else was able to dance with Cinderella - or the prince - after that. The minutes whirled away and Cinderella had the most wonderful evening of her life.

Suddenly the clock began to strike twelve and Cinderella remembered the words of her fairy godmother. She was terrified that the prince and all the people at the ball would see her become poor, raggedy Cinderella again. So, without even a final goodbye, she picked up her dress and ran as fast as she could out of the palace and away from the ball.

"Come back!" the prince called, but Cinderella carried on running, tripping on the palace steps in her haste to be away and losing one of her delicate glass slippers as she did so. With no time to stop and pick it up, she left it where it lay and continued running home. By the time she reached the street, her dress was rags again. That night, back in her usual place by the fire in the kitchen, Cinderella cried herself to sleep. She knew that life would never be so wonderful again.

But that wasn't true.

As he ran after her, the prince found Cinderella's slipper on the palace steps. He knew that the delicate glass shoe belonged to the woman he wanted to marry. So the next morning, the prince went all around the town from house to house, asking every lady to try the slipper on.

"If I don't find the beautiful stranger who wore it last night, I shall be unhappy forever and will never marry at all," he said.

The slipper did not fit any of the feet offered to the prince. He was beginning to resign himself to a life alone when, at last, he reached Cinderella's house. The two stepsisters were eager to prove to the prince that they were his intended bride! They pushed and pulled and squeezed and tried to make the glass slipper fit. But it was no use, their feet were just too big and too wide.

Broken-hearted, for this was the last house left for him to try, the prince was about to leave when he noticed what he thought was a poor servant girl, dusty and dirty from raking the fire cinders.

"Madam," he said gallantly, but without much hope, "why don't you try the slipper on too?"

"Her? Don't be silly!" the stepsisters cried together. "She didn't go to the ball, she was at home in her rightful place by the kitchen fire!"

But the prince insisted. He could see, underneath the dirt, how beautiful Cinderella was.

The stepsisters held their breath as the prince placed the slipper on Cinderella's foot and, of course, it fitted her perfectly. Spitting with rage and jealousy, the two sisters could only look on as, realizing with joy that he had found his beautiful stranger again, the prince knelt and asked Cinderella to marry him.

And Cinderella happily said yes! (12)

When the bear was fairly out of sight, his companion came down out of the tree and asked what it was that the bear had whispered to him, 'For', he said, 'I observed he put his mouth very close to your ear'. 'Why', replied the other, 'it was no great secret. He only bade me have a care how I kept company with those who, when they get into difficulty, leave their friends in the lurch.' (13)

This play is intended for use as a classroom resource, but could easily be performed as part of a whole school history day.

The Pied Piper of Hamelin - 
The Pied Piper of Hamelin develops Robert Browning's narrative poem into a complete performance, using several narrators and inserting scenes which support and expand the original text. The play has elements of comedy, encourages children to explore the issue of breaking promises and provides opportunities to include cast members in non-speaking roles.

Whistle As You Walk Away - 
The Pied Piper of Hamelin develops Robert Browning's narrative poem into a complete performance, using several narrators and inserting scenes which support and expand the original text. The play has elements of comedy, encourages children to explore the issue of breaking promises and provides opportunities to include cast members in non-speaking roles. (9)

What is performing arts?
Performing arts is a form of creative activity that is performed in front of an audience, which includes drama, music, and dance. Degrees that focus on performing arts are highly practical, and actively immerse you in cutting-edge, interdisciplinary practice which prepare you to enter the competitive industry. 

Performing arts tends to include a wide range of specialisms, including acting, dance, voice, physical theatre, music theatre, sound design and digital video. Courses celebrate the array of possibilities within live and digital arts in a range of contexts.

How long does a degree in performing arts take? Well, at undergraduate level, most performing arts degrees are three or four years long but this will largely depend on where you study. They are usually awarded as Bachelor of Arts (BA) degrees, or less commonly, Bachelor of Performing Arts (BPA). 


What do you learn in a performing arts degree?  

Performing arts degrees are generally either practice-based – involving a great deal of actual performance from day one – or academic, which combines practical work with analysis of the background of the subject. Teaching throughout the degree is therefore likely to be delivered through a mix of practical workshops and lectures (however this will vary between universities).

Many universities also offer an option to undertake work experience during your studies, which is a great opportunity to develop the skills learnt within a professional context. This could also give you a head start upon graduation.

Most performing arts degrees offer an overall foundation spanning various disciplines, before giving students the chance to choose a particular pathway. However some universities do offer dedicated degrees for each of the main three branches of performing arts – music, dance and drama. 

There is another option, however, for students who want to keep their options open – or simply enjoy some variety. Some universities offer prospective students a chance to study performing arts alongside another subject as part of a joint honours degree. This is usually within humanities, such as English literature. Usually, it is possible to transfer to a single honours programme at the end of the first year if you require.


What should I study at high school if I want to study performing arts at university? 

In terms of academic requirements, some performing arts schools will be more specific than others. Some prefer applicants who have previously studied a similar or related subject at school. However many others are happy to accept students who have not previously studied any of the performing arts before.

Perhaps more importantly, however, prospective students are extremely likely to have to attend an audition to show off their talents. Universities will normally provide information on the audition format and how and what students should prepare. This may be in the form of a solo audition, or you may be assessed as part of a group, or some combination of the two.

Performing artists generally supplement their training, generate opportunities and enhance their creative knowledge through work experience and by participating in voluntary projects. Doing this prior to applying for university courses looks impressive and shows passion for the industry. Although largely unpaid, unless you’re lucky, they are extremely valuable for showing both your interest while allowing you to learn from industry professionals.


What do people who study performing arts do after graduation?

Jobs directly related to a performing arts degree include, among many others: actor, community arts worker, dancer, music therapist or theatre director.

However it doesn’t stop there, and graduates don’t always fall into the main occupations. Other careers include: broadcast presenters, teaching – whether further education or school – scriptwriting and theatre stage management.

The majority of professionals in the industry work within the context of short-term or freelance contracts moving between different jobs and different fields. Due to the way the industry works, many opportunities come from word of mouth rather than job advertisements. Jobs can be found through networking, attending auditions, collaborating with other artists or even putting on your own shows. 

Salaries depend largely on the type of role and the size of production and are enormously difficult to calculate. A theatre actor's wage, for instance, depends largely on the size of the theatre. (22)

Pathways at level 5:

BTEC Higher National

Pearson BTEC Level 4 Higher National Certificate in Performing Arts

Level 4

Accredited

120

603/2377/2

Higher Education Funding Council for England (Hefce)

Acting
Musical Theatre
Dance
Technical Arts
Performing Arts (General)

UK and international

2018

BTEC Higher National

Pearson BTEC Level 5 Higher National Diploma in Performing Arts

Level 5

Accredited

240

603/2375/9

Higher Education Funding Council for England (Hefce)

Acting
Musical Arts
Dance
Technical Arts

UK and international

2018

Drama can be an effective tool to facilitate SEN learning. Every year the cultural education charity Shakespeare Schools Foundation (SSF) uses Shakespeare to bridge the gap between special and mainstream schools. SSF offers special school teachers creative techniques to empower their students through their annual Festival, the world’s largest youth drama project.

The results are truly transformative. After embedding the SSF process, resources and training into their curriculum, special school teachers saw an 80% increase in their students’ resilience and a 79% increase in their students’ confidence.

Through years of experience, the charity has honed different techniques and activities to enable children with special educational needs to develop their learning, to engage with the world around them and to access Shakespeare’s stories. Here are 7 tangible tips on how to empower students and educators through drama based on the charity’s process.1. A play is play: Start with games, and let your students guide you

The best way to begin working on your play is to play. Games and improvisation activities are a fun way to introduce the story and characters in a relaxed environment that students will enjoy.

It can be tempting to start your project by thinking of what the very end will look like: what exactly your students will do in their performance or the last session. It’s tricky and daunting to make all of these decisions right at the beginning. Your students are the theatre company for your project, and the very best people to help with this. Their ideas, choices and preferences will provide the most specific, creative ideas to shape your project or performance, and ensure students feel a real sense of ownership and pride in their work at the end. You can discover this through games.

At our Special School teacher CPD workshop in 2016, we taught the game ‘Double Double’. Everyone makes a circle as a group and taps their knees to a rhythm. The group sings the words ‘Double double, toil and trouble, fire burn and cauldron bubble. Now it’s time for [student’s name] to tell: what’s he/she putting in the spell?’ Students invent an ingredient which they would put in a witches’ spell – for example, frogs’ legs, or fairy’s breath – or simply an action for that ingredient, which everyone copies.

During games, your job is to watch closely whilst you play – make notes about students’ great ideas, what holds their attention, or makes them laugh, and which characters and actions they especially like to watch or perform. This will prompt lots of thoughts about where to go next.

The worlds of your story will provide rich and interesting opportunities for your students to learn about the the play. Think about all of the settings in your story, and write them down in a list. Does the action happen inside or outside? Does the place change over time, for example, does a forest become more overgrown, or a battlefield muddier and bloodier, as the story progresses? What might you feel underfoot: a rich, velvet carpet in a castle, or a squelchy swamp? Once you have thought about these questions, write down everything else that you might see, hear, feel, taste and touch in this location.

Sensory exploration is a great way into drama for many students: Turn your classroom into the world of the play so that students can experience it. Teachers taking part in the Shakespeare Schools Festival working on the play The Tempest, for example, tried projecting a big picture of a storm on the wall of the classroom and then used a fan along with water sprays to experience what the weather would feel like. You might set up a series of small sandboxes, with wet sand and dry sand, to think about the difference between a stormy and a sunny beach. Inexpensive sensory resources to explore include feathers, bubbles, pipe cleaners, pillows, fabrics, and torches. You can use any part of your school creatively to create an environment: how about featuring the playground as a battlefield for Henry V – could students look out of the classroom window and watch a King giving a rallying prep talk before a fight?

Creating playlists with music which remind you and your students of the world of the play, enables you to experience the atmosphere in that world better. Along with music we suggest using a particular scent or perfume to conjure up the setting: you can spray this smell, for example lavender, every time you rehearse, so that students feel really comfortable with the increasingly familiar scent and world of the play.

Sensory exploration isn’t just for school: your sensory props can work well onstage in a performance. For example, find a large umbrella and tie strips of blue fabric to the sides so that they hang down. Your student can open the umbrella to show rain falling, and hide behind it if they need a quiet moment onstage too.

One key aspect about making theatre with your students is that they will learn more about working together cohesively and becoming an ensemble. This is an amazing challenge for many groups, and one that can often have a meaningful legacy in your other projects and teaching, and often in students’ lives too. To work on creating an ensemble, challenge the group to make a big shape together using just themselves: everyone can take part. For example, you could make a ship, with students as the bow, rigging and wheel – use different levels and make sure that everyone is linked to someone else in the shape. Other staff members in the classroom are a vital part of your creative team, so make sure that they have a part to play too, whether it’s taking photos so that you can market your production, or being a part of the action on stage too!

As the teacher and director, you are also the ‘Storyteller in Chief’. Students will imitate your energy and ideas, and you are their single biggest motivator. So, bring brilliant enthusiasm to the room, and make sure that you model what you would like to happen: show your students how the ghost or fairy might move, so that they can copy you and feel confident to add their own ideas too.

Once you’ve done lots of exploration, think about the story that you want to tell in its simplest form. You can add in the parts which your students are particularly interested in, and then work on how to tell them best. One way to do this is to make pictograms for each main character or event. You can create these using a widget software like ‘Communicate in Print’, photos of your students in action as the characters, or pictures from the internet. With your group, invent an action for each picture. Read a simple summary of the story, and perform each action when you hear the word. You will find that students remember what is coming next and enjoy the actions that they have created.

Every way which human beings can communicate is a part of how the audience will understand and enjoy your story. So, if your students use BSL, Makaton, switches, PECS, eye contact, or singing, make sure that these are part of how their character communicates onstage! For example, a wonderful chorus in A Midsummer Night’s Dream in our Festival used Makaton to tell Puck’s story. In a battle scene, a student can stop the fight with a single look to portray a really powerful character. In another production, a washing line on stage showed clothes drying after a thunderstorm, but pictures also hung from the line: students chose their picture as a way of remembering what their character wanted to say.

7. Be surprised by what your students can and will do.

Your students will surprise you with their interests, talents, and enjoyment of the story you are telling together. One of the best places to be after a Shakespeare Schools Festival performance is in the foyer, when I hear teachers and parents turn to their young performer and say, ‘I didn’t know you could do that’. Suddenly, that person’s perception of what the student can do has changed, and for the student that means a huge boost in confidence and aspiration for the future too.

Seeing a pupil who is afraid and dislikes touching others take the hand of a facilitator to walk along the castle’s trail, or witnessing another pupil who is largely non-verbal speak the words ‘double, double, toil and trouble!’ are just two of the beautiful moments and surprises that I have been fortunate enough to experience, and conclusive proof that theatre is, and should be, for absolutely everyone. (26)

With the advent of relaxed performances at professional theatres around the world (where shows are performed with reduced sound and lighting levels and the option to move around or leave and return to the performance as needed), and wonderful productions such as Deaf West Theater’s Broadway production of Spring Awakening, which featured actors who are hearing-impaired as well as actors who use wheelchairs, theatre is proving to be a wonderful place for all – regardless of abilities or disabilities. As drama educators, we have the opportunity to really encourage students to explore the world of theatre and to take steps to make sure it is accessible for any student who desires to learn more about it, to participate in it, and to grow a life-long love for theatre! Here are some tips to get started.

Every student is different, and any student with special needs is going to have different abilities and things that they can and cannot do. Make it a priority to meet with your students (or their families, if necessary) to discuss what their goals are and what they’d like to achieve by taking drama classes or participating in a production. The more information you have ahead of time, the better prepared you are to help your students to succeed.

Using correct language is important. There is some debate about whether people-first language or identity-first language is preferential. In people-first language, the aim is to not define students by a disability or health issue because it is considered to dehumanize them and define them as something that they are rather than a condition or trait that they have. In this case, it is proper to use terms like “student with autism” or “student with ADHD” rather than “autistic student” or “ADHD student.” On the other hand, identity-first language is also frequently used, particularly by those in Deaf culture, since being culturally deaf considered to be a source of positive identity and pride. Overall, it is a personal preference for each student.

It is also important to avoid negative and ableist terms when referring to students with special needs. Avoid saying things like “he suffers from x diagnosis” or “she is a victim of x diagnosis.” Students with special needs are not victims or are suffering, and must not be patronized or treated in a way to bring shame or embarrassment. Nor are they worse-off or inferior for having special needs or a disability. A disability descriptor is simply a medical diagnosis.

There are lots of ways you can assist students with special needs in the drama classroom. Focus on what your students can do, rather than on what they can’t do. Consider the following:

Treat all of your students equally. A student with special needs may need some specific accommodations at times, but mostly they want to be part of what everyone is doing. (27)

Consider:

Consider:

Make sure that the:

Level 1

Level 2

Level 1

Maintain knowledge and expertise in styles of acting; develop a broad knowledge of performance; enrich your qualifications.

Level 1

Level 2

Level 1

Level 2

Level 1

Level 2

Level 2

As their students develop their skills, they will have the opportunity to learn other dance forms, take classes in singing and drama and participate in performances and competitions.

The company is a Council for Dance Education & Training recognised school and their students are entered for RAD, ISTD, Rambert, NATD and Acrobatics Arts examinations. 

Musical Theatre pupils are entered for LCM exams.

Students are trained in Ballet,Tap, Modern/Jazz, Acro, Contemporary, Drama, Singing, Musical Theatre &  Cheerleading; exams are taken up to 3 times a year and they stage a Show at a large Theatre in Derby every year. They also enter Festivals, and dance at many other prestigious venues around the  country.

Although the company offers enhanced training and has proved successful, due to its lack of acting focused work, other than musical theatre, I do not think that this company would be something, like stagecoach, that would benefit me in my line of work.