*Fundamental attribution error
observers overestimate the importance internal traits and underestimate the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of an actor's behavior
* False consensus effect
overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do
The Self as a Social Object
* self-objectification- Apple of another person's eye
*Stereotype threat- fear of being judged based on  negative stereotype about his or her group
*social comparison-process by which we evaluate our thoughts,feelings,behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people
Attitudes guide actions

Cognitive Dissonance- concept developed by Festinger, is an individual's psychological discomfort(dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts (hypocrite)
*Experimenter by Festinger and J. Merrill Carlsmith
asked college students to engage in boring tasks ($20,$1)
-Effort justification means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something. 
- Self-perception theory, Daryl Bem's take on how behavior influences attitudes
*Behaviors can cause attitudes, when we are questioned about our attitudes,  we think back on our behaviors for information
Persuasion
Elements of persuasion , identified by Carl Hovland and colleagues 

Elaboration likelihood model- two ways to persuade: Central route and peripheral route
Persuasion techniques:
Door-in-the-face
Foot-in-the-door
Resisting Persuasion:
Inoculation- like giving a vaccine, a weaker version of information

Egoism- giving to another person to gain reciprocity
Aggression
Aggressive behavior often results when areas such as the limbic system are stimulated by electric currents
Frontal lobes implicated in aggression
Lower levels of serotonin have been linked to aggressive behavior
-Testosterone
John Dollard, frustration-aggression hypothesis
Cultures of Honors- Dov Cohen
Media Violence
Solomon Asch- experiment on conformity (which line is the same size as the other one out of three) Pressure to conform is strong
- Informational Social Influence influence other people have on us because we want to be right
-Normative Social influence is the influence others have on us because we want them to like us.
*Obedience - Stanley Milligram Shock experiment
Deindividuation - being part of a group reduces personal identity and erodes a sense of personal responsibility, gives anonymity- KKK
Social Contagion- imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions, and ideas

Social Facilitation- Improvement in an individual's performance because of the presence of others

Social Loafing- Each person's tendency  to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual (WHEN U DONT DO GROUP WORK)

Risky Shift- tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members.

Group polarization effect- The solidification and further strengthening of an individual's position as a consequence of a group discussion or interaction

Groupthink- The impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintaining group harmony. "get with the program" VALUE CONFORMITY OVER ACCURACY
*Irving Janis- decision making errors in history (Pearl Harbor, Vietnam War, Challenger spaceshuttle disaster)
can be prevented if groups avoid isolation
Social identity- The way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership- u can identify with a country, social organization, religious group etc.
 *Henry Tajfel* Social identity theory- Our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves
1. in-group
2. out-group
Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan- Resumes that were different stereo typically on how White or Black their names sounded but had the same qualifications in Boston and Chicago. White-sounding names were 50% more likely to be called for an interview.
Explicit vs. Implicit racism - Consciously aware and others hidden at a deeper level
*Implicit racism- Implicit Associations Test (IAT) computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a Black or White person with good things and bad things. Based on the idea that preexisting biases may make it easier to associate some social stimuli with positive rather than negative items.
Muzafer Sherif- Robber's Cave experiment
Eliot Aronson- Jigsaw classroom, equal in ethnic composition and academic achievement

CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS
Mere exposure effect- The phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before.
*Consensual validation- people are attracted to others who are similar to them. Since they share similar values, our attitudes and behavior validate ours.

Social Exchange theory- The view of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits (You give me this i give you that)

Investment Model- examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships.


 

George Valliant- 1/3 alcoholism by 65
dead, beating, done
Recovery

Barbiturates
heavy dosage=impaired memory
combined with alcohol can be lethal
Tranquilizers-high dosage, drowsiness and confusion
*Nicotine raises dopamine levels*
Amphetamines

increase release of dopamine
example= crystal meth, large amounts of dopamine and can potentially damage receptors
Cocaine
depletion of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine 

-agitated,depressed mood
*Cocaine binds to the uptake pumps and prevents them from removing dopamine from synapse. More dopamine collects in synapse and more receptors are activated
Ecstasy
stimulant and hallucinogenic properties "empathogen"=warm bond when taken
releases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Depletes serotonin
LSD
bad temper, paranoia, homicidal and suicidal impulses
Mainly affects serotonin but may affect dopamine
Rules for hypnotizing
1. minimize
2. concentrate
3. inform (expectations)
4. suggest (know is happening)
Divided consciousness view of hypnosis
Ernest Hilgard - hidden observer

Dendrites- receive information and orient it towards the neuron's cell body

Axon- carries information away from the body towards other cells

Myelin Sheath- encases and insulates most axons (speed up nerve impulse)

Terminal Branches-end of cell

Neural Impulse
Polarized- most negatively charged ions on the inside of the cell and most positively charged ions on the outside
Depolarization- sodium gates open briefly, positively charged neuron. Potassium channels open and they move out through semipermeable membrane
Action potential- brief wave of positive electrical charge , lasts 1/1000th of a second

Structures and Functions of Human Brain 

Hemispheres of the Brain
           Left

         Right

Brain imaging
EEG-electrodes, record's brain's electrical activity
CAT/CT scan- 3D xray, location and extent of damage
PET-metabolic changes in brain. Measures glucose levels
MRI- construct images of brain (brain's interior)
fMRI- function and structure of brain
TMS- magnetic coils- causes of brain activities and brain areas. induce brief electrical current pulses in the brain which trigger action potentials.
Hindbrain

Limbic system- hippocampus and amygdala

Basal Ganglia- large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements
*Isabel Gauthier- recognizing greebles faceless creatures

Evolutionary Approach
-Ethology: study of animal behavior
-Instinct: unlearned universal biological pattern of behavior

Ex.: Babies and sucking, motives for sex, aggression, achievement

Drive Reduction Theory
-Drive: physiological need
-Need: deprivation motivates drive to eliminate deprivation

Ex.: Need- water, Drive- being thirsty

-Some association between the two
-Drive is psychological, need is physiological
-Drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it
-Homeostasis: maintain body's processes (blood sugar, K+Na levels, temperature, oxygenation)
-Theory kinda sucks because humans sometimes increase drive (going on a hunger strike)

Optimum Arousal Theory
-Arousal: feelings of alertness and engagement
-Yerkes-Dodson: we perform best at moderate levels of arousal
-Overlearning: learn to do a task so well, it's automatic
-High Arousal: anxiety
-Low Arousal: boredom

Hunger, Obesity, and Eating Disorders
-Cannon and Washburn: found association between stomach contractions/hunger
-CCK (hormone) starts digestion of food and tells us to STOP EATING
-The two guys used balloon in stomach with air pressure

-Glucose: hunger; brain REALLY needs it; when sugar too low, receptors in liver and brain trigger hunger; liver stores excess sugar; triggers hunger

-Insulin: glucose control
-Complex carbs. causes insulin to go up then down gradually
-Simple sugar: rise, fall sharply
-Satiety: feeling full

-Leptin: released by fat cells; decreases food intake, increases energy expenditure (metabolism)
-Discovered in obese mice
-Anti-obesity hormone
-Linked with weight, body fat, weight loss (dieting)
-Human obesity (?)

Brain Processes
-Lateral Hypothalamus: stimulating eating (if destroyed, no interest in food)
-Ventromedial Hypothalamus: reducing hunger/restricting eating (if destroyed: keep eating)
-Neurotransmitters and neural circuits (clusters of neurons)
-Serotonin satiating effect of CCK
-Leptin stops neurotransmitters in hypothalamus

Obesity
-Genetic
-Set point: weight when you're not trying to gain/loose weight (determined by stored fat in body)
-Fat in body
-Fat stored in adipose cells
-Normal: 10-20 billion, Obese: 100 billion
-Time and place affect eating
-Evolutionary POV: ancestors loved sugar
-Obesity increases risk for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression

Disordered Eating
-Anorexia Nervosa: starving yourself
-.5 and 3.7% of women
-Characteristics: 

-Physical Changes: growth of fine hair, thinning of bones/hair, severe constipation, low blood pressure, damage to heart/thyroid
-highest mortality rate (5.6%) of psychological disorders
-Perfectionism
-Begins in teenage years
-Obsessive-compulsive

-Bulimia Nervosa: person follows binge-purge eating pattern
-Fear of gaining weight
-Depressed or anxious
-Chronic sore throat, kidney problems, dehydration, gastrointenstinal problems, dental problems
-Starts late teens
-Affects 1 and 4% women
-Perfectionism
-Self-efficacy low (high standards, low confidence)
-Impulsivity, negative emotion, childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder
-Sexual/physical abuse in childhood

Causes/Treatment
-Media
-Genetic (problems with serotonin)
-Physical effects of disorders may change the neural networks
-Recovery: promote weight gain, drug therapies and psychotherapies

-Binge Eating Disorder: eating a LOT (like, A LOT) of food at one time
-Most are overweight/obese
-Most common (2-5%)
-8% of obese people
-Care a lot about physical appearance
-Diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease

Causes/Treatment
-Genes
-Dopamine
-Parts of brain/endocrine system that deal with stress overactive (leads to increase in cortisol- the stress hormone)
-Weight loss? Psychological disorder? How do we treat it???

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
-Human needs that must be satisfied in a certain order
-Strongest needs at base (physiological); weakest at top (self-actualization)

-Lower needs come from deficiency
-Warning: you'll stop after esteem
-Critics: you can skip around bro...

Self-Determination Theory (Ryan+Deci)
-3 Basic Needs:

-Exist in everyone
-We can grow and be awesome if in right context
-Concerns PERSONAL growth

Autonomy:
-Sense that we control our own life
-Tells us that actions come from self-interest
-Related to well-being
-Older people more YASS when doing boring stuff (voting, taxes, etc.)
-Does not come from deficits

Competence:
-Met when we bring desired outcomes
-Self-efficacy: you have ability to accomplish stuff
-Mastery: sense that you can gain new skills
-Related to success

Relatedness:
-Need to be warm with others
-Need to belong MAY be strongest motivator
-People get sad when they're lonely
-Loneliness: distress, life is meaningless
-Valuing extrinsic qualities decreases well-being

-Critics: are needs actually universal?
-West: individualistic culture
-East: collectivistic culture
-When we do stuff because WE WANT TO, life is better

-Intrinsic Motivation: based on internal factors
-Extrinsic Motivation: involves external motivators

-Why do you study?

-Self-regulation: you control behavior in order to achieve goals (get feedback, mood affected depending on how goals are going)
-Set good goals
-Plan and monitor goals

Emotion
-Feeling involves physiological arousal, consciousness, and behavioral expression
-Biological Factors: sympathetic nervous system

-Parasympathetic nervous system:

-Evolved to enhance survival
-Emotions trigger SNS/PNS

Measuring Arousal
-Skin conductance level (SCC): increase in skin's electrical activity when sweat increases
-Polygraph: measures HR, breathing, SCC; these influenced by emotional states; not really accurate
-Polgraph really iffy
-Can't distinguish between anxiety and guilt
-Not allowed in court
-fMRI can be used for deception (changes in prefrontal cortex, studies better than chance but below perfection)


Theories
-James-Lange Theory: emotions happen after physiological reactions

Ex.: something happens --> aroused body --> sends sensory messages to brain --> emotion perceived

-Body's reaction=emotion

Critics:
-Cannon: different emotions don't have specific physiological responses (ANS too slow to account for emotions)

-Cannons-Bard Theory: emotion and physiological reactions happen together
-Body not REALLY important
-ANS stimulated (sends messages to cerebral cortex)
-Some emotion-specific responses

Amygdala:
-Has circuits that activate during negative emotions (really important in fear)
-LeDoux: fear
-Protects organism from danger
-Evolved to detect/respond to predators
-Emotion can follow 2 pathways
-Direct: thalamus --> amygdala (no detailed info., but FAST)
-Indirect: thalamus --> sensory cortex --> amygdala (nerve impulses from sensory organs --> amygdala)
-Amygdala linked with emotional memories
-Once we learn danger, we don't forget
-Why can't we change fears?

Cerebral Hemispheres:
-Work differently in positive and negative emotions
-More left prefrontal cortex activity=happiness
-Endorphins and dopamine= positive emotions (happiness)
-Norepinephrine:: regulates arousal

Cognitive Aspect
-Do we think our emotions?

Two-Factor Theory:
-Schachter/Singer
-Emotion determined by physiological arousal/cognitive labeling
-Interpret external cues then label emotion

-Schachter/Singer shot people up with epinephrine
-Theory summed up: you misinterpret arousal which leads to intensified emotions
-Dutton/Aron: did bridge story study

-Zajonc and Lazarus: which comes first, thinking or feeling?
-Lazarus: thinking 1st
-Zajonc: emotions 1st "preferences need no inferences"
-Gut feeling needs no thought

-Both dudes correct
-Lazarus: events occur over a period of time (being in love for years)
-Zajonc: single events (car accidents)
-Some emotions instantaneous; no thinking
-Long-term feelings: (being depressed) thinking

Behavior and Emotion
-Can be verbal (saying stuff), nonverbal (facial expressions)
-Facial Feedback Hypothesis: expressions influence/reflect emotions (facial muscles send signals to brain which results in emotion)

-Darwin: facial expressions NOT LEARNED

-Biological ties (blind children can smile and frown)
-Ekman: facial expressions don't really change in different cultures

-Display rules: social standards for when, where, and how emotion should be expressed
-Other universal nonverbal signals (Depression):

-"Thumbs up": good in U.S., bad in Greece

Emoticons:
-Introduced by Fahlman
-Helps us compensate for vocal tone/facial expression
-Differs amongst cultures
-Show how important emotions are

Gender and Emotions:
-Not many differences
-Women good at recognizing emotions
-Tied to social beliefs
-Women=more emotions
-Women experience emotions longer


-Valence: is emotion pleasant or unpleasant? (emotions tend to go together based on valence)
-Negative Affect: unpleasant emotions (anger)
-Positive Affect: pleasant emotions
-Doesn't explain EVERY emotional state

-Arousal level: degree to which emotion reflected (engaged vs. calm)
-Circumplex model of mood: measures valence/arousal
-Valence and arousal: independent dimensions
-Excitement: high-arousal
-Rage: high-arousal

-Negative emotions: something is wrong and we need to fix it
-Positive emotions: everything is good
-Broaden-and-build model: (Fredrickson) and moods increase attention/ability to build resources
-Positive emotions are good for doing good stuff

Resilience
-Bouncing back after everything falls apart
-Resilient people more optimistic
-Tugade, Fredrickson, Barrett: good coping comes from using positive emotions
-You bend but don't break

Happiness
-Genetic: 50-80% heritability (influenced by experience)
-Set point? your happiness when you're not trying to increase/decrease it
-Happiness fluctuates
-You're not doomed to an unhappy life

-Hedonic Treadmill: anything that makes you happy doesn't last forever because we adapt to changes
-Happiness as the goal won't work
-Linking everyday goals to happiness NOT good

-Lyubomirsky: want happiness? Do intentional things like exercise, kind acts, etc.
-Altruism: increases happiness
-Emmons/McCullough: study: counting blessings increases well-being
-Meaningful goals

SET GOALS BRO

1. Take in information
2. Store/represent it
3. Retrieve for later purpose

-Encoding: process where information goes into memory
-Some is automatically encoded, other takes effort

Attention:
-Must pay attention to information
-Attention must be selective because brain's resources are limited
-Selective attention
-We attend selectively to some information and ignore other
-Divided Attention: multi-tasking
-Sustained Attention: (vigilance) paying attention to one thing and ONE THING ONLY
-Multi-tasking NOT useful
"Decreased ability to filter out interference from irrelevant task"

Levels of Processing
-Shallow --> intermediate --> deep
-Shallow: noting physical features of stimulus
-Intermediate: gives stimulus label
-Deep: gives stimulus meaning
-Deeper the process, the better memory
-Making associations makes it more likely that we'll remember it

What's involved?
-deep: prefrontal cortex
-shallow: amygdala

Elaboration (aka links)
-Extensive processing equals better memory (different connections formed around stimulus at encoding level)
-Concrete examples are good
-Self-reference: relating material to own experience
-Elaboration linked with neural activity
(Left frontal lobe, hippocampus)

Imagery
-EXTREMELY powerful way to make memories
-Paivio: memory stored as verbal or image (highly detailed, distinctive) code
-Dual-code hypothesis: memory for pictures better because stored as verbal and image codes

Storage
-Good encoding does not mean good memory
-Memory must be stored properly
-Definition: how information is retained represented in memory

-Atkinson-Shiffron Theory: 

-Each works in distinctive ways and has a special purpose

Sensory Memory
-Hold information in original sensory for an instant form
-Rich and detailed
-Lose information unless we encode/store it
-Retains information from senses for short amount of time (not always conscious of this)

-Echoic: auditory sensory memory
-Information retained for up to several seconds

-Iconic: visual sensory memory
-Retained about 1/4 of a second

(echoic=echo=sound; iconic=icon=image)

-Short exposure to stimuli not enough time to move information to STM
-The material is memorized for an instant because it's processed as far as iconic sensory (info. retained for 1/4 of a sec.)

STM
-Most things don't pass auditory/visual sensory memory
-We pay attention causes info. to STM: info. retained for 30 seconds (unless we try to retain it longer)
-Limited capacity

-Miller: 7 +/- 2 iems
-Memory span: # of digits person can remember after short representation (in order)
-Relying on STM is useless

Chunking/Rehearsal
-Grouping information that exceeds 7+/-2 rule
-Makes large amounts of info. more manageable
-Adding meaning is easier to remember
-Rehearsal is good
-Information can be retained FOREVER (if not interrupted)
-Often verbal, can be visual/spatial
-Good for remembering info. for short periods of time
-Not good for long-term
-Con: adds no meaning
-Meaning is good for memory

-Atkinson/Shiffrin's theory sucks because how does STM function?
-How does stuff get in/out of memory?
-Where does problem solving take place?

BUT this theory is lowkey useful.

Working Memory
-We can hold stuff while we do stuff
-Has limited capacity
-Active memory system

Baddeley's Model:
-Boss: central executive
-Assistant (phonological loop)
Assistant (visuospatial working memory)
-conceptual model describing processes in memory
-USEFUL

Phonological Loop
-Stores speech-based info. about sounds of language
-Acoustic: sounds we hear, decays in few seconds
-Rehearsal: allows us to repeat words in phonological store
-Limited capacity

Visuospatial Working Memory
-Stores visual and spatial info. and visual imagery
-Limited capacity
-Works independently
-Too many items means we can't represent them accurately enough to retrieve them successfully
-Can rehearse numbers in phonological loop while making spatial arrangements of letters

Central Executive
-Limited capacity
-Integrates info. from phonological loop, visuospatial, and LTM
-Important role in paying attention, planning, and organizing
-Decides what to pay attention to and what to ignore
-Picks which strategies to use to process info. and solve problems

LTM
-permanent type of memory: stores large amount of info. for long time
-Size: 2.8 X 10 ²  (280 quintillion) bits, virtually unlimited
-Divided into substructures: explicit and implicit memory

Explicit Memory
-5 Ws: who, what, where, when, why

Implicit Memory
-HOW

Ex.: past events
Im: How to do things

Explicit
-Conscious recollection of info. [specific facts, events, info. that can be verbally communicated]
Ex.: recalling names in President's cabinet
-Permastore content: portion of original learning that stays with person forever without rehearsal
PAST EVENTS

Episodic Memory
-Retention of info. about where, when, what of life's events
Ex.: what you ate for lunch
-Autobiographical 

Semantic Memory
-Person's knowledge about the world
-Independent of individual's personal identity with past
-Includes general knowledge and everyday knowledge

-Semantic and episodic system's often work together
-Episodic can be impaired but semantic can work
-Criticism: explicit memory neither purely episodic or purely semantic

Implicit
-Nonconsciously remembering skills and sensory perceptions [no conscious remembering of facts]
-Behavior affected by prior experience without conscious recollection of that experience
-Aka: you know something but you don't know how/when you know it

Procedural Memory
-Memory for skills

Classical Conditioning
-Automatic learning of associations between stimuli so one evokes same response as the other
-Non-conscious implicit memory

Priming
-Similar to Gestalt: closure
-Activation of info. people already know to help them remember new info. better and faser
-Involuntary, non-conscious
-Occurs when something in environment evokes response in memory
-Priming makes concept more available in memory
-Influence social/goal-directed behavior

Retrieval Failure (Example of forgetting)
-Theory: retrieval failure
Interference Proactive:
-Old info. screws with new info.

Ex.: Old friend Prudence, new friend Patience, calls new friend Prudence

Retroactive Interference:
-New info. screws with old info. 

Ex.: Old friend Raul, new friend Ralph, calls old friend Ralph

-Possibly due to problems with retrieval
-Cues can be overloaded, means higher chance of forgetting/retrieve incorrectly

Organization
-Memories carefully stored
-One of memory's most distinctive features
-Simple organization=improved memory
-Organizing info. during encoding important to memory
-2 theories: schemas and connectionist networks

Decay Theory:
-More time passes, forgetting increases
-Decay alone can't explain forgetting
-Under right retrieval conditions, we can recover memory we "forgot"
-New info. means new neurochemical memory trace; over time, trace goes bye-bye

Tip-of-the-Tongue:
-Happens when we retrieve some info. but not all of it
-Shows that we don't store info. in one way
-Words with some sounds screw you up (linked in verbal memory)

Ex.: Colorful scarf- bandage? banana? BANDANA!!

Tips:
-Relate material to yourself
-Make sure info. is accurate and organized
-Encode it (pay attention)
-Elaboration
-Encode early and often

-Rehearse
-Give stuff meaning
-Lecture yourself
-Personalize it
-Test yourself
-Use retrieval cues
-Most importantly: CHILL

-Other stuff you study out of paranoia
-Autobiographical memory: allow us to learn from experience
-Source of identity
-Redemptive stories: bad to good (happy people)
-Contamination stories: good to bad (pissy people)
-Use your memory or lose it
-Active intellectual lives protect you from mental decline

*Renewal* recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in novel context

John B Watson and Rosalie Rayner- demonstration of fear with little Albert

Counter conditioning vs Aversive Conditioning
Counter- used for changing relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
Aversive- repeating pairings of a stimulus with an unpleasant stimulant

Habituation- example; more of drug needed to feel high

Operant conditioning
*E.L Thorndike's law of effect- cat experiments, proved that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and those followed by negative outcomes are weakened
Shaping- rewarding approximations of a desired behavior'

Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive R- frequency of behaviores increases followed by the presentation of something good
Negative R- frequency of behavior increases due to removal of unpleasant stimulus
Positive Punishment-behavior decreases when followed by an unpleasant stimulus
Negative Punishment- behavior decreases when positive stimulus removed

Albert Bandura- Observational learning, Bobo doll
E.C. Tolman- insight or latent learning, behavior has a goal
Wolfgang Kohler- Insight Learning- studied apes (stick and box problem)