• -Tin-Plague or tin-pest

• soft metal
• malleable but not very ductile
• brittle when heat

• Oxygen : form SnO₂ when heating
• Water : form a little H₂ at high temperature
• Chlorine : form SnCl_⁴ on heating

•  SnO₂ - oxidation state is +4
• form by direct heating in air or oxygen
• pure ionic oxide
• amphoteric oxide, with H₂SO₄ (acid), with OH- (alkali)
• SnO - oxidation state is +2
• know as black tin
• prepared by heating tin oxalate
• amphoteric acid

•  prepared by direct heating of element
• colourless liquid
• covalent compound with tetrahedral structures

• covalent compund
• soluble in water and organic solvent
• strong reducing agent

• obtained by passing through the H₂S gas in Sn(II) solution
• dark brown

• oxidation of SnS
• yellow solid

• high density but soft with low BP
• high luster, ductile, highly malleable
• resists corrosive

• Lead(IV) halide, PbX4

• Lead(II) halide, PbX2

• SnO2 (s) + H2SO4 → Sn(SO4 )2 (s) + 2H2O
• SnO2 (s) + 2OH− → SnO3 2− (aq) + H2O (dehydrated) 

• PbO (Lead oxide)

• PbO2 (Lead dioxide)

• Pb3O4 (Trilead tetraoxide)

• Lead(IV) Halide, PbX4

• Lead(II) halide, PbX2

• Lead Sulphide ( PbS)

• Carbon atoms bonded together by covalent bonds
• Very high m.p (~4000◦C)
• sp3 hybridization
• Does not conduct electricity (no free electron)

• sp2 hybridization
• Arranged in layer
• Softer than diamond ( weak bonds between layers)
• Conduct electricity (only in plane) (use as electrode)
• As lubricant
• As oxidizing agent or reducing agent

• Dehydration of formic acid or oxalic acid by conc. H2SO4
• Reduction of CO₂ by hot-red C 

• Reaction of acid with calcium carbonate(marble)
• Heating limestone

• PbO (Lead oxide)

• PbO2  (Lead dioxide)

• Pb3O4(Trilead tetraoxide)

• Lead(IV) halide, PbX4 

• Lead(II) halide, PbX2 

• PbS (Lead sulphide)

• 2^nd most abundant element in Earth.
• exist as silica,SiO₂ and silicate substances.

• Silica need to be in excess to avoid formation of silicon carbide,SiC. 
• SiO₂(s) + C(s) -> Si(s) + 2CO

• SiCl₄(l) + 4Na(s) -> Si(s) + 4NaCl
• Metal halides formed can be removed by washing with HCl.

• Si from a) refined by heating the rod from one end and slowly moved to other end.The impurities will move with heating and be cut off at the end.

• metallic luster and grayish color.(crystalline Si)
• diamond lattice.
• high melting point.
• inert element but can react with halogens.
• Does not dissolve in any acids except HF.
• Dissolve in base.(form silicate anion and hydrogen gas)

• Silica,SiO₂ exist as polymeric tetrahedral.
• Bond between Si-O is 50% ionic because of the difference in the electronegativity. 
• The whole SiO₂ molecule is a covalent macromolecule with the formation of polymorph.

• SiCl₄ + 4H₂O -> 4HCl + H₄SiO₄ 
• H₄SiO₄ undergo heating process at 1270K to get SiO₂.

• Na₂SiO₃ + 2HCl -> 2NaCl + H₂SiO₃ (metasilicic acid)
• H₂SiO₃ undergo heating process at 1270K to get SiO₂.

• inert at low temperature but reactive at elevated temperature.
• At elevated temperature,silica=strong acidic oxide.
• dissolve in HF only. [ SiO₂(s) + 6HF(aq) -> H₂SiF₆(aq) + 2H₂0(l) ]
• dissolve in alkali and form water glass,Na₂SiO₃ and water.

• formed when SiO₂ react with metal oxides or metal sulphate or metal carbonate.
• polymorph (SiO₄)^4- contains tetrahedral SiO₄,which join through Si-O-Si bonds.
• Example minerals: Emerald,Diopside,Asbestos,Mica.

• 3D silicate.
• formed when Al atom substitutes Si in the silicate framework(negatively charge), [(SiO₄)_n(AlO₄)_m]^m-
• excess charge balanced by cations from Group IA,IIA or transition metals.

• hydrated aluminosilicate crystals(open structure framework) contains cages,channels and pores of regular dimensions.
• M_n/y[(SiO₂)_x(AlO₂)_y].zH₂O where [] is the aluminosilicate framework,M=cations balancing the framework,z=number of H₂0 molecule occupying the pores,channels and cages.

• regular size of pores and channels.
• molecular sieves to seperate molecules of different sizes.
• ion exchanger used in water softening.
• Zeolite = strong acidic solid catalyst when cation exchanged with H⁺.

1. A,X,Y,Clinoptilolite--function as ion exchanger.
2. A,X,Carbazite--function as molecular sieves and absorbent.
3. Y,ZSM-5,Beta--function as Heterogeneous catalysts.

• formed when sand react with metal silicate or aluminosilicate or borosilicate.

• not true solid.
• supercooled liquid(high viscosity,cannot free flow)
• no melting point(amorphous)
• can turns to clear liquid eventually when heating.
• inert but can react with F₂,HF and alkali.

• Mixed the calcium silicate (CaSiO₃) and sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃) to produce soda glass.

1. Soft glass ~ ordinary soda-lime for making bottles and window glasses.
2. Hard glass ~ potash-lime glass for glass apparatus(resistant to chemicals and hard to melt)
3. Flint glass ~ lead-potash-lime glass for making prisms,lenses and optical devices.
4. Jena glass ~ zinc-barium-borosilicate glass for heat shock resistant apparatus.
5. Pyrex/Corning glass ~ sodium-aluminium-borosilicates.(similar to Jena glass)
6. Crooke's glass ~ cuts off UV rays.
7. Quartz glass ~ pure silica(does not crack)
8. Ground glass ~ soft glass,ground by emery and turpentine
9. Reinforced glass ~ Does not shatter easily due to the network of wires embedded in it.

• organosilicon compounds having heterocatenated Si-O-Si-O bonds.
• alkyl/aryl(R) group bonded to Si atom.

• Hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides followed by condensation.

1. Disilicone - can be prepared by hydrolysis or condensation.
2. Chain silicone - can be prepared by hydrolysis or condensation.
3. Branched silicone - can be prepared by hydrolysis.

• thermally stable
• low viscosity
• silicone rubbers remain elastic even at low temperatures
• water repellent(hydrophobic) caused by the presence of alkyl groups.
• inert towards chemical attack or oxidation.

• as lubricants
• low temperature hydraulic fluids
• in comestic (primer)
• breast implant shell
• silicone wax for water repellent.

• All halides exist.
• [Si_nCl_(n+2)] can up to Si₆Cl₁₄
• All halides except SiF₄ are unstable and undergo hydrolysis in water.(form silica and acid)
• SiF₄ undergo partial hydrolysis. [ 2SiF₄ +2H₂O -> SiO₂ + H₂SiF₆ + 2HF]
• Hydrolysis occurs through the formation of dative bonding from O atom of water to Si of SiX₄.

• (acid) SnO2 (s) + H2SO4 → Sn(SO4 )2 (s) + 2H2O
• (alkali) SnO2 (s) + 2OH− → SnO3 2− (aq) + H2O (dehydrated) 

• Sn + O2  → SnO2
• Pure ionic oxide 
• Does not dissolve in HCl, HNO3 or even aqua regia.
• Amphoteric oxide 

• Also refer as black tin
• Preparation by heating tin oxalate
• Amphoteric oxide ( more base than SnO2) ( more Lewis basic because it has more electrons than tin (IV) )

• Sn + Cl2 → SnCl4
• Colourless liquid
• Covalent compund with tetrahedral struture.
• In moist air, rapidly hydrolyzed anf fuming as a result

• With conc. HCl / NH4Cl form complex SnCl6 2-

• Predominantly covalent compund
• Soluble in both water and organic solvents
• Preparations 

• Dissolved in water to give cloudy solution due formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides
• Heating SnCl2.2H2O also form basic chlorides. 
• Strong reducing agents

• Obtained by passing through the H2S gas in Sn(II) solution 

• Dark brown unstable solid.
• Easily oxidize to SnS2

• Obtained by oxidation of SnS using ammonium polysulphides 
• Yellow solid.
• Dissolves in excess of (NH4)2Sx

• [He]2s²2p²
• Non-metal
• Has the ability to catenate
• Form allotropes (Diamond, Graphite, fullerenes)

• insoluble in water
• has giant covalent structure
• extremely hard
• has a high melting point
• each carbon bonded to its neighbours by four strong covalent bonds having sp³ hybridisation
• no delocalised electrons 
• does not conduct electricity

• very useful in cutting tools
• used in Jewelry

• insoluble in water
• layered giant covalent
• soft compared to diamond
• has a high melting point
• Each carbon atom is bonded covalently into its layer with 3 other C atom having sp² hybridisation
• leaves each atom with a spare electron
• these delocalised electrons can all move along together – making graphite a good electrical conductor

• Writing materials- making the lead in pencils
• main ingredients in lubricants like grease because layers can slide over each other

• insoluble in water
• truncated icosahedrons (curled up into ball)
• high melting point
• C has sp_² containing 30 C double bond C
• delocalized electrons- good electrical conductor

• used as conductors (superconductor wire)
• used as lubricants

• Oxides
• Carbonate
• Halide
• Carbides

• Exist as CO and CO₂

• simple molecular structure
• colourless, odourless and poisonous gas 
• slightly soluble in water
• burned with blue flame
• strong reducing agent (used to reduce metallic oxide to metal)
• Neutral oxides (react with neither acids nor alkalis)

• Carbon monoxide gas can be prepared in lab by heating formic acid or oxalic acid with conc. H₂SO₄.
• Reduction of CO₂ by hot-red C

• simple molecular structure
• colorless and odorless gas
• non-flammable gas
• slightly toxic
• soluble in water, solubility decreases as temperature increases
• solid CO₂ is called dry ice
• acidic oxide (react with aq alkalis giving XO₃^2-

• Reaction of acid with calcium carbonate
• Heating limestone

• All carbonate do not dissolve in water except for carbonate from GroupIA, GroupIIA (very sparingly soluble)

• Covalent compounds existing as simple molecules with a tetrahedral structure
• Volatile liquid at room temp
• Low bp due to weak intermolecular forces between the CX₄
• CX₄ is stable to heat even at high temp

1. Ionic Carbide (Saline Carbide)

• C+ metal (Group IA, Group IIA, Group IIIA)

• found in carbides of silicon and boron

• C+ Group IVA, Group VA, and Gruop VIA
• have very high melting points
• low electrical resistance

• high density but soft with low boiling point
• high luster,ductile,highly malleable
• Resists corrosive

• Pb + O₂ --->PbO + O₂  ---> Pb₃O₄ 
• Pb + HNO3 ---> Pb(NO3)2
• Pb + H2SO4 ---> PbSO4(insoluble)
• Pb + air/moisture ---> Oxy carbonate Pb

i) Direct Reaction
Pb + O₂ → PbO
ii) Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO₃)₂ / PbCO₃

i) Heating Pb (II) solution with sodium chlorate.
ii) Red lead with nitric acids

i) Dark brownish solid / black powder
ii) Ionic compound
iii) Strong oxidizing agent

3Pb + O₂ → Pb₃O₄
PbO₂ → Pb₃O₄ + O₂ (△)

• Tin Allotrope

• Diamond lattice, 5.75 g/cm3, in powder

• Tetragonal, 7.31 g/cm3, metallic solid

• Soft metal, malleable, but nit very ductile, becomes brittle on heating, crackles when bent

• Oxygen : Form SnO2 on heating 
• Water : Form a little H2 at high temperature 
• Chlorine : Form SnCl4 on heating

• Direct heating of metal in air or oxygen

• Pure ionic oxide
• Does not dissolve in HCl, HNO3 or even aqua regia
• Amphoteric oxide 

• Also referred as black tin
• Preparation by heating tin oxalate
• Amphoteric oxide (more base than SnO2 ) (more Lewis basic because it has more electrons than tin (IV) )

• Preparation direct heating of the element

• Colorless liquid
• Covalent compound with tetrahedral structure
• In moist air, rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming as a result 

• With conc. HCl/NH4Cl, form complex SnCl6 2-

• Predominantly covalent compound
• Soluble in both water and organic solvents
• Preparation : Anhydrous SnCl2

• Dissolved in water to give cloudy solution due to formation of basic chlorides

• Heating SnCl2.2H2O also form basic chlorides

• Strong reducing agent

• Exist as mono (SnS) and disulphide (SnS2)

• Obtained by passing through the H2S gas in Sn(II) soln

• Dark brown unstable solid,
• Easily oxidize to SnS2

• Obtained by oxidation of SnS using ammonium polysulfides (NH4)2Sx (mixture of (NH4)2S and S) 

• Yellow solid
• Dissolves in excess of (NH4)2Sx SnS2(s) + (NH4)2S→(NH4)2SnS3

• Existence : mineral -gelena, Pbs
• Extraction
• 2PbS + 2O2 —> 2PbO + 2SO2
• PbO + C —> Pb(I) + CO (g)

• Properties:
• High density (heaviest common element) but soft with low boiling point
• High luster, ductile & highly malleable
• Resists corrosive

• Preparation:

1. Direct reaction between elements

• Pb + O2 —> PbO2

1. Thermal decomposition Pb(NO3)2 or PbCO3

• 2Pb(NO3)2 —> (heat) 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
• PbCO3 —> (heat) PbO + CO2

• Amphoteric oxide
• PbO + 2HCl —> PbCl2 + H2O
• PbO + 2OH– + H2O —> Pb(OH)4 2-

• Preparation:

1. Heat Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate

• Pb2+ + H2O + CIO3– —> PbO2 + Cl- + 2H+

• Pb3O4 + 4HNO3 —> PbO2 + 2Pb(NO3)2

• Properties:
• Dark brownish solid / black powder
• PbO2 is an ionic compound (Pb4+ & O2-)
• Strong oxidizing agent (+4 —> +2)
• Decompose when heating
• Dissolves in acids
• amphoteric oxide
• mainly use as cathode in lead acid battery

• Red lead
• mixture of 2PbO.PbO2

• Preparation:
• 3Pb + O2 —> Pb3O4
• PbO2 —> (heat) Pb3O4 + O2
• Shows properties like PbO and PbO2

• Lead(IV) halide, PbX4
• PbF4 & PbCl4 exists 
• PbBr4 & PbI4 do not exist 
• bcs Br2 & I2 are not strong oxidizing agents thus unable to oxidize Pb(II) —> Pb(IV)

• Lead (II) halide, PbX2
• All halides exist in ionic form
• PbF2, PbCl2, PbBr2 = white solid
• PbI2 = yellow solid

• Only forms PbS
• As black precipitate forms when H2S is passed through Lead(II) solution
• Pb2+(aq) + H2S(g) —> PbS(s) + 2H+ (aq)

• PbO + 2HCl —> PbCl2 + H2O (with acid)
• PbO + 2OH– + H2O —> Pb(OH)4 2- (with alkali)

• 2^nd most abundant element in Earth.
• exist as silica and silicate substances.

• Silica,SiO₂ exist as polymeric tetrahedral.

• inert at low temperature but becomes reactive at elevated temperature.
• become strong acidic oxide at elevated temperature.
• dissolve in alkali and form water glass,Na₂SiO₃ and water.

• formed when SiO₂ react with metal oxides or metal sulphate or metal carbonate.
• Structure: polymorph (SiO4 ) 4− - contains tetrahedral SiO4 join through Si-O-Si bonds 
• Example minerals: Emerald,Diopside,Asbestos,Mica.

• 3-dimensional silicate.
• occurs when Al atom substitutes Si in the silicate framework.
• excess charge balanced by cations from Group IA,IIA or transition metals.

• formed when sand + with metal silicate or aluminosilicate or borosilicate.

• not true solid.
• supercooled liquid(high viscosity,cannot free flow)
• no melting point(amorphous)

• Mixture of the calcium silicate (CaSiO₃) and sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃) .

1. Soft glass
2. Hard glass 
3. Flint glass 
4. Jena glass
5. Pyrex/Corning glass 
6. Crooke's glass 
7. Quartz glass 
8. Ground glass 
9. Reinforced glass

• organosilicon compounds having heterocatenated Si-O-Si-O bonds.

• Hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides followed by condensation.

1. Disilicone 
2. Chain silicone 
3. Branched silicone 

• thermally stable
• low viscosity which changes with temperature
• silicone rubbers remain elastic even at low temperatures

• as lubricants
• low temperature hydraulic fluids
• in comestic (primer)
• breast implant shell
• silicone wax for water repellent.

• All SiX4 exist.
• All halides except SiF₄ are unstable and undergo hydrolysis in water.
• SiF₄ undergo partial hydrolysis. 
• Hydrolysis occurs through the formation of dative bonding from O atom of water to Si of SiX₄.

• Diamond lattice, 5.75 g/cm³,in powder

• Tetragonal, 7.31 g/cm³, metallic solid

• Soft metal, malleable, but not very ductile &crackles when bent, become brittle on heating

• Oxygen: From SnO₂ on heating
• Water: Form a little H₂ at high temperature
• Chlorine: Form SnCl₄ on heating

• Direct heating of metal in air or oxygen
• Pure ionic oxide
• Does not dissolve in HCl, HNO₃ or even aqua regia
• Amphoteric oxide

• Also referred as black tin
• Preparation by heating tin oxalate
• Amphoteric oxide (more base than SnO₂) *more Lewis basic because it has more electrons than tin (IV)

• Colorless liquid
• prepare by direct heating Sn and Cl₂
• covalent compound with tetrahedral structure
• in moist air rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming

• Covalent compound
• soluble in both water and organic solvent
• prepare by anhydrous SnCl₂ and continued y hydrated tin
• dissolve in water and give cloudy solution due to formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides
• heating hydrated tin compound also form basic chlorides
• a strong educing agent

• Dark brown
• easily oxidize to SnS₂
• obtained by pass through H₂S gas in Sn(II) solution

• yellow solid
• obtained by oxidation of SnS

• Extraction

• Tin Allotrope

1. α-Sn (Grey Tin)

• Tin-plague/Tin-pest

• Physicochemical Properties

• Tin(IV) Oxides, SnO₂ 

• with acid

• with alkali

• Tin(II) Oxides, SnO

• In Acid

• In Alkali

• Tin(IV) Chloride

• Tin(II) Chloride

• Tin(II) Sulphide

• Tin Sulphide

• 2nd most abundance element in the earth
• exist silicon dioxide, SiO2 

1. Reducing SiO2 by coke
2. Reducing SiCl4 by Na

• Has metallic lustre and greyish colour
• Having diamond lattice
• High melting point
• Inert element but attack by hydrogen
• Do not dissolve in any acid (except HF)
• Dissolve in base
• Inert at low temperature but reactive at elevated temperature 
• Become acidic at elevated temperature

• Exist as polymeric tetrahedral 
• The whole molecule is covalent macromolecule with the formation of the polymorph

• Hydrolysis of SiCl4
• Acidification of water glass

• Structure: polymorph that contain tetrahedral SiO4
• Join through Si-O-Si bond

• Has 3D silicate
• Occur when aluminium atoms substituted Si in the silicate framework 
• Framework become negatively charge
• Excess charge are balance by cation from group 1 or 2 or transition metal
• Example: feldspar, zeolite (hydrated aluminosilicate)

• Has regular size of pores and chanel 
• Molecular sieve to separate molecule of different size

• Not a true solid
• It's supercool liquid that having very high viscosity 
• Has no melting point
• Inert by most chemicals but attack by F2, HF and alkali 
• Production: soda is a mixture of calcium silicate and sodium silicate
• Type: soft glass (ordinary sodaline), hard glass (potash lime glass), flint glass (lit-potash-lime glass with high refractivity), gina glass (zinc-barium-borosilicate glass), corning glass (sodium-aluminium-borosilicate)

• All halide except SiF4 are unstable and undergo hydrolysis in water