References:

Bilbao, M. (1866). Iniciativa de la América Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas. In M. Bilbao, Obras completas (pp. 285-304). Buenos Aires.

Jones, T. (2016, April 6). Illegal gold mining drives human rights abuses in Latin America, claims study . Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/apr/07/illegal-gold-mining-drives-human-rights-abuses-in-latin-america-claims-giatoc-study

Maihol, G., & Reisch, V. (2021). Environmental Rights and Conflicts over Raw Materials in Latin America. Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik German Institute for International and Security Affairs.

As part of the Bahian school, de Jesus blended European Baroque traditions with Brazilian themes—a form of artistic resistance. His work reflects Indigenous Reclamation through the figure’s dignified posture and integration with nature counter colonial claims of Indigenous “barbarism”.

Furthermore, the painting was commissioned by both religious orders and Emperor Pedro I, navigating colonial power structures while asserting a distinct Brazilian identity.

The painting itself reflects the exploitation of Latin America through its relation to the other continents, through the lack of clothing, sitting on a box rather than an animal, all within nature, a prime space of exploitation through colonisation.

References:

Valerio, M. A. (2023). Atlantic Masters: Three Early Modern Afro-Brazilian Artists. Arts, 12(3), 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts12030118

The history of the Mexican-US border is filled with turmoil and invasion, as shown by Kahlo in her painting. Just how Kahlo stands on the border dividing the two nations, this wedding took place with the frontier dividing the couple, calling the very notion of borders into question. Border art is a way of expressing a mixed cultural identity, a natural child of the Mexican people, whose national identity is founded upon the notion of mestizaje, a breeding ground of this mixed identity that has grown within the border.

References:

The Border Wedding. Guillermo Gómez-Peña and Emily Hicks. Border Field State Park/Playas de Tijuana. February 1988. Photo courtesy of Guillermo Gómez-Peña

She embodied self determination, exploring themes such as 'pregnancy, miscarriage, politics, conception, gender roles, and sexuality. All of which were revolutionary for a woman'.

This is evident in Self Portrait Along the Border Line, with her crossdressing, not only to send a national message, but send a powerful personal and independant statement.

Despite the delay in her impact on social culture, she has had and continues to have an incredible influence on artistic culture all over the world.

The proliferation of Frida Kahlo on socks, t-shirts, bags, slippers - the list goes on - depicts Kahlo as synonymous with a number of movements which speak to so many, and the very exploitation that Kahlo suffered as a disabled woman in the early 20th century.

References:

Ratcliffe, L. (2022). Frida Kahlo's Influence and Lasting Impact on Society Today . Retrieved from The Flame Tree Blog: https://blog.flametreepublishing.com/art-of-fine-gifts/frida-kahlo-impact-on-society-0

The military dictatorship censored almost all artistic forms of expression, representing the exploitation of the people through the oppressive government. Through its domination, the military government marked 'the beginning of a new authoritarian cycle in the region', not only in its own country. It marked the beginning of decades of exploitative regimes throughout Latin America through its violence and brutality.

'Aquele Abraço' embodies the complex interplay between art, politics, and resistance in the face of exploitation. Gil's composition transformed the pain of oppression into a joyful, defiant embrace of Brazilian culture and spirit, highlighting Brazilian identity in the face of oppression and exploitation

The photo shows Gil and Caetano Veloso in London during their exile, where their years spent their influenced both Brazilian and British music - playing at the Isle of White festival, as well as meeting Bob Marley helping him understand 'what was African about Brazilian culture'.

References:

Lewis, J. (2010). Gilberto Gil and Caetano Veloso in London . Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/15/gilberto-gil-caetano-veloso-london

Patto Sa Motta, R. (2023). The Brazilian Military Dictatorship: a Present Past. Brasiliana: Journal for Brazilian Studies, 12(1).

Not only had it become a major hit and an unofficial anthem of Rio de Janeiro at the time of its release, but over 40 years later, its significance was undeniable.

The popularity of the song demonstrates the state of mind of the Brazilian population in the face of an exploitative and repressive government

References:

Pijpers, J. M. (2016). Affective Resonance: The Moving Potential Of Music In Gilberto Gil's «Aquele Abraço>> Espacio, Tiempo Y Forma, 307-327.

Similar to Gil, Freire's ideas led to be imprisoned and exiled, as the oppressive ideas of the regime directly informed his work.

Latin America's history of colonization and exploitation created deep-rooted social and economic inequalities, which Freire's work addresses, particularly marginalised groups such as peasants and illiterate populations in Brazil and other Latin American countries

The models of education reinforce existing power structures and social inequalities, stemming from the exploitation of Latin America by the colonial forces. Only hrough education and 'critical consciousness' can one break free from this exploitation and oppression.

Freire addresses the exploitation of Latin America through his educationa philosophy, reflecting and responding to the violent, dominated history of the land

References:

Streck, D. R. (2023). Open-access Paulo Freire and Latin American pedagogy: the construction of a pedagogical identity. Revista Brasileira de Educação (28), 1-18

Corey, D. (2023). Paulo Freire's Oppressive Pedagogy . National Affairs, pp. 36-52.

Alongside Arizona, the military dictatorship in Brazil also banned the book, alongside apartheid South America, highlighting the reception to new, controversial notions.

This raises the question of how is history taught and how it differs between the country of the oppressor and the country of the oppressed.

The reception to Freire's work was an example of exactly what he was writing, the power dynamics held by teachers, and on a broader scale, by governments and regimes.

This quote speaks to the core of Freire's work emphasies the empowerment and liberation through dialogue and critical thinking, born from and fighting against the rampant exploitation of the people.

References:

Aitchison, J., & McKay, V. (2021). A historical remembrance of Paulo Freire in South Africa: A tale of two activists. Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 61, Number 3, 334-354.

Shapiro, A. (2017, August 22). Federal Judge Finds Racism Behind Arizona Law Banning Ethnic Studies . Retrieved from npr: https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2017/08/22/545402866/federal-judge-finds-racism-behind-arizona-law-banning-ethnic-studies

 Paulo Freire Quotation (2018), Change education, change the world. The documentary, Festival Alternativo de Creatividad y Educación, https://faceugena.wordpress.com/2018/08/17/change-education-change-the-world-the-documentary/

It is home to the gauchos, iconic figures in Argentine history, in particular in La Pampa, where istorically worked as skilled horsemen and cattle herders. The painting celebrates their equestrian skills and rugged lifestyle, which is deeply tied to the province's rural heritage.

Nonetheless, The cattle-ranching economy depicted in the artwork is rooted in colonial exploitation. Indigenous peoples were displaced from their lands during Spanish colonization and subsequent expansions in the 19th century.

Furthermore, while gauchos are celebrated as symbols of independence and resilience, their historical reality was tied to exploitative labor practices. They often worked under harsh conditions for wealthy landowners, reflecting broader patterns of social stratification in Latin America.

Finally, the pampa's landscape in the painting reflects Latin America's history of land concentration. Latifundios controlled by elites marginalized indigenous peoples and rural workers, perpetuating systems of inequality

References:

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "La Pampa". Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Jun. 2013, https://www.britannica.com/place/La-Pampa. Accessed 29 March 2025.

Pfeiffer, C. S. (n.d.). Al galope en la pampa argentina . Saatchi Art , Buenos Aires.

Leal, O. F. (2019). Os Gaúchos: Cultura e identidade masculina no Pampa. Tessituras, Revista de Antropologia e Arqueologia, 17-47

Published in 1872, the poem Martín Fierro was widely embraced by rural audiences who identified with the gaucho’s struggles. Fierro became a mythic figure among the countryside population, a symbol of Argentina’s rural heritage and national identity, despite its protagonist representing a marginalized and exploited class.

Through highlighting the fading of gaucho culture due to modernization efforts that prioritised European ideals, the poem parallels Latin America’s broader history of cultural exploitation under colonialism and neocolonialism

From a different perspective, Fierro’s hostility toward indigenous peoples, Afro-Argentines, and European immigrants reflects how marginalized groups often turn against one another, underscoring the divisive impact of colonial hierarchies on Latin American societies

The themes of exploitation of the land, people, and culture are exposed in the poem - themes which are central to Latin America's history of exploitation.

References:

Galeano, Eduardo. (1997) Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. Translated by Cedric Belfrage , 25th Anniversary ed., Latin America Bureau, .

Fama, A. (2024). Martin Fierro & life in the countryside. BA Street Art, Buenos Aires.

Ortega, N. G. (2005). Literary Nationalism and (Post)Colonialism in Latin America. A Show Case Study: Argentine, Martín Fierro, A Classical Epic? Neohelicon, 175-204.

Aslo de la Torre, Melissa, and Janette Núñez. (2022, 27 September) "Exhibition Highlight: Martín Fierro: From Marginal Outlaw to National Symbol." LLILAS Benson Magazine, sites.utexas.edu/llilas-benson-magazine/2022/09/27/exhibition-highlight-martin-fierro-from-marginal-outlaw-to-national-symbol/.

Under Pinochet's dictatorial regime, the Carabineros were instrumental in systemic oppression. They participated in thousands of cases of torture, illegal detentions, and disappearances of political opponents, particularly targeting indigenous groups such as the Mapuche, contributing to a climate of fear and terror.

The Chile 2023 Human Rights Report highlights the continuity of this violence, showing numerous cases of carabineros abusing their power: killing numerous citizens unjustly, physical as well as sexual abuse. Their exploitation of power lies in their origin and their creation, initially formed to protect internal colonial settlements, highlighting their origins in exploitative systems.

References:

Lamson, Jeffrey O., "La Identidad de Los Carabineros de Chile: The Evolving Identity of Chile's National Police Force and the 1973 Military Coup" (2014). Honors Theses. Paper 745

United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Chile 2023 Human Rights Report. (2023)

At COP26, Indigenous women highlighted femicide's connection to ecocide, themes echoed in Vicuña’s work. The red wool evokes "the blood of glaciers," symbolizing environmental destruction caused by extractive industries in Latin America. Through its revival of Andean traditions and environmental critique, Quipu Womb powerfully addresses how colonialism and patriarchy have shaped Latin America’s history and present.

Lesso, R. (2024, August 20). Rediscovering the Quipu: The Textile Art of Cecilia Vicuña . Retrieved from The Thread : https://blog.fabrics-store.com/2024/08/20/rediscovering-the-quipu-the-textile-art-of-cecilia-vicuna/

Roelstraete, D. (2017). Cecilia Vicuña . Retrieved from Documenta 14: https://www.documenta14.de/en/artists/13557/cecilia-vicuna

Vicuña, C. (2017). Quipu Womb (The Story of the Red Thread, Athens). EMST National Museum of Contemporary Art, Athens .

Brooks, L. (2021 , November 10). Indigenous women speak out at Cop26 rally: ‘Femicide is linked to ecocide’ . Retrieved from The Guardian : https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/10/indigenous-women-speak-out-at-cop26-rally-femicide-is-linked-to-ecocide

The hosts criticise media fixation on clerical debates, such as about married priests, as a distraction from structural injustices—a dynamic seen across Latin America, where elite narratives often overshadow systemic exploitation.

Furthermore, there is praise of the post-synodal apostolic exhortation of Pope Francias concerning the critique of environmental exploitation. Nonetheless, others criticise it for Francis’s vision of a socially just Amazon, which challenges entrenched systems of inequality and echoes broader struggles across Latin America for Indigenous rights, environmental preservation, and economic equality. All together, this highlights how the reaction to this work by Pope Francias is steeped in the systemic exploitation of Latin America on a number of levels: environmental, social, and economic.

References:

Dulle, Colleen; O'Connell, Gerrard, Hosts, (2020, February 19), Deep Dive: Querida Amazonia, Inside the Vatican Podcast

Inside “Querida Amazonia:” A Conversation with Cardinal Michael Czerny, S.J | Behind the Story, YouTube, uploaded by America: The Jesuit Review, (2020, February 12), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3YeVkbqPg8o

These evangelisation efforts mirror colonial practices where Indigenous populations were forcibly converted and subjected to cultural erasure. The missionaries' disregard for Indigenous autonomy perpetuates this legacy, reflecting former exploitative practices within Latin America.

Despite federal policies prohibiting forced contact,such actions disregard Indigenous autonomy and exacerbate risks of cultural and physical genocide, leading to devastating outbreaks of disease, threatening the survival of these communities.

References:

Bibliography

Lima, E. C. (2020, February 15). Mixed reactions to Querida Amazonia from Brazilian bishops . Retrieved from Crux: https://cruxnow.com/church-in-the-americas/2020/02/mixed-reactions-to-querida-amazonia-from-brazilian-bishops

Phillips, D. (2020, March 23). The isolated tribes at risk of illness from Amazon missionaries . Retrieved from The Guardian : https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/mar/23/the-isolated-tribes-at-risk-of-illness-from-amazon-missionaries

References:

Anderson, Mark C. (1998) “What’s to Be Done With ’Em?: Images of Mexican Cultural Backwardness, Racial Limitations and Moral Decrepitude in the United States Press 1913–1915.” Mexican Studies, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 23–70. Reprinted in What the United States Has Fought For, by John T. McCutcheon, Chicago Tribune, 1914. Wisconsin Historical Society,

Despite being initial portrayed as cannibalistic, this image softened into a more graceful and 'Arcadian' figure.

The symbol reflected a Eurocentric worldview, emphasizing America's perceived barbarism compared to Europe's civilization.

'In general, symbolic America looked decidedly European, though some artists gave her a copper tint and a few—confusing America with Africa—created a Negroid image of both'.

The exploitation and manipulation of Latin America is hence clear in its portrayal from a European perspective, as well as the reception to the allegories represented through America's portrayal developing.

Nonetheless, unlike previous allegories which depicted America as subservient to Europe, de Jesus’s work refuses colonial hierarchies.

References:

Ashton, Mark (1978). "Allegory, Fact, and Meaning in Giambattista Tiepolo's Four Continents in Würzburg". The Art Bulletin. 60: 109–12.

Higham, John (1990). "Indian Princess and Roman Goddess: The First Female Symbols of America", Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society. 100: 50–51,