- Living things consist of atoms of different elements.

 An atom is the smallest basic unit of matter

> An element is one type of atom.

- An atom has a nucleus and electrons.

> The nucleus has protons and neutrons.

> Electrons are in energy levels outside nucleus.

Atomic # = # Protons

# Protons = # Electrons

Mass # - Atomic # = # Neutrons

Nucleus: 8 protons (+) 8 neutrons

-  A compound is made of atoms of different elements bonded together

- Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons.

> An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons.

* positive ions

* negative ions

Positive ions - cat ion

Negative ions - onion

 

> Ions bond form between oppositely charged ions.

* metal and nonmetals

* full transfer between metal and nonmetal

- Atoms share pairs of electrons in covalent bonds.

> A covalent bond forms when atoms share a pair of electrons.

* multiple covalent bonds 

* diatomic molecules 

Ls.3.2 Properties of Water

- Life depends on hydrogen bonds in water.

> Water is a polar molecules.

* Polar molecules have slightly charged regions.

* Nonpolar molecules do not have charged regions.

* Hydrogen bonds form between slightly positive, hydrogen atoms and slightly negative atoms.

> Hydrogen bonds are responsible for three important properties of water.

* high specific heat

* cohesion 

* adhesion

Ls.3.2

Many compounds dissolve water.

A solution is formed when one substance dissolves in another 

Like dissolves like

An acid releases a hydrogen ion when it dissolves in water .

A base removes hydrogen ions from a solution.

Ls.3.3

4 types of macromolecules (carbon based molecules)

                        

- Four main types of carbon-based molecules are found in living things.

> Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

* Carbohydrates include sugars and starches.

* Monosaccharides are simple sugars.

* Polysaccharides includes starches, cellulose, and glycogen.

> Carbohydrates can be broken down to provide energy for cells.

> Some carbohydrates are part of cell structure.

> Lipids are nonpolar molecules that include fats, oils, and cholesterol.

* Many contain carbon chains called fatty acids.

* Fats and oils contain fatty acids bonded to glycerol. 

* Water fearing - hydrophobic 

* Water “loving” - hydrophilic 

>  Lipids have several different functions.

* broken down as a source of energy

* 

> Fats and oils have different types of fatty acids.

* Saturated fatty acids

* Unsaturated fatty acids

(Saturated fats contains fatty acids in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds.)

(Unsaturated fats have fatty acids with at least one carbon-carbon double bond.)

> Phospholipids makeup all cell membranes.

* Polar 

> Proteins are polymers of amino acid monomers.

* Twenty different amino acids are used to build proteins in organisms

* Amino acids differ in side groups, or R groups.

> Proteins differ in the number and order of amino acids.

* Amino acids interact to give a protein its shape.

* Incorrect amino acids changes a protein’s structure and function.

> Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

* Nucleotides are made of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base.

* Cellular energy is known of ATP.

* DNA stores genetic information.

* RNA builds proteins.

 

Ls.3.4 Chemical Reactions

- Bonds break and form during chemical reactions

> Chemical reactions change substances into different ones by breaking and forming a chemical bond.

* Reactants are changed during a chemical reaction.

* Products are made by a chemical reaction.

>Bond energy is the amount of energy that breaks a bond.

* Energy is added to break bonds.

* Energy is released when bonds form.

>A reactions is at equilibrium when reactants and products form at the same rate.

        CO2+H2O-H2CO3

- Chemical reactions release or absorb energy.

> Activation energy is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed to start a chemical reaction.

> Exothermic reactions release more energy than they absorb.

* Reactants have higher bond energies than products.

* Excess energy is released by the reaction.

> Endothermic reactions absorb more energy than they release.

* Reactants have lower bond energies than products.

* Energy is absorbed by the reaction to make up the difference.

L.s3.5 Enzymes

Key Concept

Enzymes are catalysts for chemical reactions in living things.

- A catalyst lowers activation energy.

> Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions.

* Decrease activation energy 

* Increase reaction rate

* Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy

- Enzymes allow chemical reactions to occur under tightly controlled condition.

> Enzymes are catalysts in living things.

* Enzymes are needed for almost all processes.

* Most enzymes are proteins.

* All enzymes end in -ASE

> Disruptions in homeostasis can prevent enzymes from functioning.

* Enzymes function best in a small range of conditions.

* Changes in temp. and pH can break hydrogen bonds.

* An enzyme's function depends on its structure.

> The lock-and-key model helps illustrate how enzymes function.

* Substrates brought together

* Bonds in substrates weakened

* Substrates bind to an enzyme at certain places called active sites.

* The enzymes brings substrates together and weakens their bonds.

* The catalyzed reaction forms a product that is released from the enzyme.

An element is the one of atom.

Proton, neutron, electrons, three parts of a atom.

Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.

Atomic number = number of protons.

Atomic number can be found on the periodic table.

Number of protons=electron if it is neutral.

Mass number - atomic number = neutron.

Positive ion = cation    negative = anion. 

Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions usually between metals and nonmetals.

Ionic bonds are the full transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.

A covalent bonds form when atoms share a pair of electrons. Happens between two nonmetals.

A solution is formed when one substance dissolves in another.

Solvents dissolves another substance .

Solute is dissolved.

Salt is a nacl. 

The ph scales ranks from 0-14 middle number is 7  acidic high h+ concentration

7-above low h+ concentration more basic. 

Neutrals are around 7.

Monomer is one thing many mers is  a polymer.

4 types of macromolecules

1:Carbohydrates=sugars   C-O-H

Monosaccharides are simple sugars

Polysaccharides are starches,cellulose and glycogen. 

 2: lipids are fats.

C-H-o

Are nonpolar. Are the polymer and monomer is the fatty acids

They are hydrophobic. - [water fearing]  

[Water loving] -hydrophilic.

Saturated is solid unsaturated is liquid .

Phosphate are the head the tails or lipid or nonpolar. 

Proteins are polymers of amino acid monomers.

Another name for protein is polypeptide.

Incorrect amino acids change  proteins structure and function.

Nucleic acids are the polymer of monomers called nucleotides.

Cellular energy is know as         

                                                    [  ----- ]

                                               [                 ]

                                          [         ATP.     ]

                                             [                  ]

                                                 [ -----]

 

 Bonds break and form during chemical reactions.

Bond energy is the amount of energy that breaks the bond.

Activation energy is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed to start reaction.

Exothermic reaction released.

Endothermic absorbs more energy that released.  

 

 

Catalyst are use for speeding up a reaction by lowering the activation energy.

Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

All enzymes end of- ase 

Lock and key.

There​ ​are​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​transport​ ​for​ ​proteins​ ​and​ ​other​ ​substances​ ​in​ ​a​ ​cell.​ ​There​ ​is 

active​ ​transport,​ ​and​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​Active​ ​transport​ ​requires​ ​chemical​ ​energy​ ​from​ ​the​ ​cell 

to​ ​retrieve​ ​the​ ​molecules​ ​that​ ​it​ ​needs.​ ​Passive​ ​transport,​ ​on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​requires​ ​no​ ​energy 

from​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​Molecules​ ​can​ ​move​ ​across​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​membrane​ ​using​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​know 

to​ ​move​ ​from​ ​high​ ​to​ ​low​ ​concentration.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​The​ ​first​ ​is 

Diffusion,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​second​ ​is​ ​Osmosis.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​three​ ​types​ ​of​ ​solutions​ ​that​ ​are​ ​the​ ​cause​ ​of 

passive​ ​transport.​ ​These​ ​include;​ ​Isotonic,​ ​Hypotonic,​ ​and​ ​Hypertonic.​ ​Now,​ ​we​ ​shall​ ​walk 

through​ ​an​ ​experiment​ ​that​ ​describes​ ​what​ ​each​ ​solution​ ​is,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​results,​ ​or​ ​outcomes​ ​of​ ​the 

solution. 

Suppose​ ​we​ ​have​ ​a​ ​beaker​ ​of​ ​water.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​has​ ​a​ ​.7mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​Then,​ ​we​ ​place​ ​in 

a​ ​single​ ​cell,​ ​which​ ​also​ ​has​ ​.7mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​both​ ​the​ ​solute​ ​and​ ​the​ ​solvent 

are​ ​equal.​ ​Therefore,​ ​we​ ​are​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​believe​ ​that​ ​the​ ​solution,​ ​is​ ​isotonic.​ ​The​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​water 

flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​directly​ ​matches​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​cell​ ​then 

remains​ ​the​ ​same,​ ​perfectly​ ​shaped.​ ​It​ ​does​ ​not​ ​swell,​ ​now​ ​does​ ​it​ ​shrivel. 

In​ ​the​ ​next​ ​beaker,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​another​ ​single​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​has​ ​3.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar,​ ​and​ ​the 

cell​ ​has​ ​2.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​balance​ ​between​ ​the​ ​solute​ ​and​ ​solvent​ ​have​ ​been​ ​altered.​ ​The 

solution​ ​is​ ​now​ ​called,​ ​hypertonic.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​is​ ​much​ ​much​ ​less​ ​than​ ​the 

amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​Therefore,​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​begins​ ​to​ ​shrivel​ ​up​ ​because​ ​it​ ​loses 

the​ ​liquid​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​it. 

In​ ​our​ ​last​ ​beaker,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​yet​ ​another​ ​single​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​on​ ​the​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​is 

2.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar,​ ​and​ ​on​ ​the​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​it​ ​has​ ​3.3mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​balance​ ​between​ ​the 

water​ ​outside​ ​and​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​is​ ​yet​ ​again,​ ​unbalanced.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell, 

moves​ ​at​ ​a​ ​greater​ ​speed​ ​than​ ​the​ ​water​ ​does​ ​moving​ ​out​ ​of​ ​it.​ ​Therefore,​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​begins​ ​to 

swell.​ ​The​ ​more​ ​that​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​swells,​ ​the​ ​higher​ ​the​ ​possibility​ ​of​ ​it​ ​exploding.