History Timeline Chapter 2 by Helena M Rhein

No Child Left Behind (2002)

rhei3740 — 2025-04-08 00:01:14 UTC

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was a radical Act that focused on what ELLs didn’t have (a high proficiency in English) rather than on what they have the potential to become: an emergent bilingual. Mahoney writes, "Educational reform efforts in the United States in the early 21st century can be largely defined by two characteristics: (1) schools labeled as excellent are those that have good test scores in math and reading, and (2) the use of standards and test-based accountability is the way to achieve such excellence" (Mahoney, 2024). Since NCLB relied too much on “high-stakes standardized tests” as the means to measure comprehension and success, many students a heavy focus was put on English-only instruction. As a result, many students, including MLs, were considered at risk of failing, regardless of how they did in other subjects.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (2015)

rhei3740 — 2025-04-08 00:02:35 UTC

President Barack Obama in 2015 and sought to reform some of the failures of NCLB, such as the over-reliance on high-stakes standardized testing as the only means to evaluate student success. ESSA gives the state the ability to be flexible in their goal setting—which was good for MLs; ESSA gave the state opportunities to design more realistic expectations for ML learning. Additionally, it can help recognize which schools are under-performing and consider options to increase student opportunity.

National Opt-Out Movements (2012-2015)

rhei3740 — 2025-04-08 00:11:02 UTC

After NCLB, state testing became frequent and heavy. To this day, state tests are a controversial topic among parents. Many parents sign permission for their children to opt-out. I think this movement is important. I already see in schools how students (MLs and non-MLs) have no issues taking zeros instead of doing the work and they are indifferent to tests. If parents allow their children to opt out of state testing, students learn that it is OK to not try on tests—even on those specifically for MLs, like the NYSESLAT. This sets bad habits that will affect into their classroom tests and their overall grades. It will discourage MLs from truly working hard and learning English.

A Discussion on Test Fairness (1960s/1970s)

rhei3740 — 2025-04-08 00:16:54 UTC

In 1969, researchers Chandler and Plakos conducted research to learn more on how intelligent (IQ) tests were being used with Spanish-dominant Mexican American children. They found that many students were being deemed "educable mentally retarded (EMR)" since the tests were only in English and, therefore, did not show the true dimensions of their abilities (Mahoney, 2024). This experiment laid the groundwork for future discussions regarding test fairness for MLs, as test were being given in English to students who were not yet proficient in the language.

Eugenics and Intelligence Testing (1916)

rhei3740 — 2025-04-08 00:33:04 UTC

In 1916, Lewis Terman's Standford-Binet Intelligence Testing was used for the first time in schools. His testing claimed that some people, like the wealthy with European ancestry, were 'gifted' while others, the non-wealthy and non-European, were 'feeble-minded'. Terman also claimed that that the arrival of southern and eastern Europeans would lower national intelligence and jeopardize American from within.

Needless to say, this Terman's claims come from a racist and superiority-thinking perspective. By trying to keep the country "pure", he took opportunities away from non-dominant cultural and linguistic groups, such as MLs. Therefore, these groups are the most vulnerable to test misuse based on race, ethnicity, or language. Sadly, versions of his tests are still used today. This, plus the fact that "schools still serve as the main sorters of economic and social classes" put MLs at an unfair disadvantage (Mahoney, 2024).