CHIPS by Beth P

Ancient Greek Psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:16:21 UTC

Homer +- 3000-700BCE (Greek)Mind/ soul accompanies the body but doesn't cause behaviour
Mind/soul survives death
Behaviour is motivated by the Gods

Archaic Greek Psychology +-700-500BCE

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Alcmaeon of Croton (+-500BCE; Italy)
Perception is distinct from understanding
Sensory organs are connected to the brain by channels
Sensation and thought occur in the brain

Empedocles of Acragas (+- 492-432 BCE, Agrigento)
Objects emit copies
Our senses catch those copies and pass them on to the heart where thinking takes place.

Archaic Greek Psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:20:56 UTC

Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BCE)
Pythagorean theorem
Musical notes can be translated into mathematical equations
Distinction between mind and body
Soul moves to divine if pure enough; otherwise reincarnated into animal
Founded a sect in Croton, Italy to live ascetically

Classical Greek Psychology +- 500-323 BCE

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:23:41 UTC

Socrates (469-399BCE)
Midwife method-rational method- to find truth: help people to discover what is true, using critical reasoning
Dies for his belief in democracy

Classical Greek Psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:26:14 UTC

Plato (427-347BCE)
Appearance corresponds to our world, but reality to the world of ideas or forms. The forms explain our knowledge of abstract categories- categorisation
We can remember the forms by doing philosophy; we lost knowledge during birth
Idea of forms leads to a hierarchy of things that exist and of States of mind.

Classical Greek psychology:

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:31:38 UTC

Personailty= soul= made up of 3 parts:

Rational part: motivated quest for the Forms and located in the head
-> Guardians/Philosophers

Spirited part- motivates quest for glory and fame and is located in the chest
-> auxiliaries/ military

Desiring part: motivates all irrational wants and is located in belly and genitals
-> productive classes/farmers

Visual perception

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:34:36 UTC

Eyes emit rays that strike objects. Sunlight is a necessary extra factor for vision to occur.
Reason and logic necessary to grasp the Forms

Classical Greek psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:36:29 UTC

Aristotle (343-322BCE)
In perception, the mind receives an objects form.
Matter and form (essence) are distinct.
The form explains our knowledge of abstract categories.
How they can be defined->essential cause
How they come into existence-> formal cause
What is their purpose->final cause
What material is made of->material cause

Classical Greek Psychology:

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:41:20 UTC

Different elements of the soul;
Nutritive; nutrition, reproduction, growth
Sensitive; awareness (pain pleasure) Imagination memory and motion flow
Rational-power to think

Aristotle- 3 laws of association

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Similarity
Contiguity
Contrast

Empiricism:

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Reliance on sensation and perception
Investigative nature- empirical method, but also use reason

Medieval Psychology 476-1350CE

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BACKGROUND
Constantine (306-337CE) makes Christianity state religion
Mohammed (570-637 CE) brings Islam (Surrender) to the world
Cultural/intellectual isolation of West and East

Medieval Psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:47:44 UTC

St Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE, Algeria)
Combines Platonism with religion:
intellect itself is incapable of acquiring knowledge, it is made capable through illumination of God

Ibn Sina- Avicenna (980-1037)

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Existence of conscious self
Platonistic hierarchy combined with Aristotle's division of the soul, give hierarchical faculty psychology

Medieval Psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 15:53:45 UTC

St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
God can be known by studying nature
Knowledge can be obtained without divine intervention
Elaborates on Ibn Sina's idea of the mind.

Aristotelian World View

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:20:24 UTC

Local (vertical) motion
Global (circular) motion
Earth static; elements have natural place; circle motion and epicycles explain planet and star motion
God moves planets, or sets everything in motion

Scientific revolution:

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:23:05 UTC

Copernicus makes 30 years of naked eye observations
Shows that it makes mathematical sense to some that the Earth orbits the sun
Employed;
Circular motion
Constant speed
Epicycles
Contributed world view change and empirical data for others to use

Scientific revolution; rationalist tradition

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:27:15 UTC

Mathematically it makes sense that
-planetary orbits are elliptic
-the sun is not the centre but the focal point of the ellipse
-linear speed nor angular speech are constant, but area speed is constant
Kellers laws explain Mars motion
Explanations go beyond experience

Scientific revolution; rationalist tradition

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:29:04 UTC

Galileo:
Discovery of mountains on the moon
discovery of 4 moons around Jupiter
used for estimating longitude position

Scientific revolution; rationalist tradition

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:31:36 UTC

maths used to describe primary qualities
Newon used maths to describe planet and object motion
Newton didn't do many experiments (but used experimental data)
Mechanisitic world view
Prism demonstration; light is composed of different colours
We cannot trust out senses

Scientific revolution; empiricist tradition

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:35:29 UTC

Baconian method:
List 1- all successful ManC matches
(essence and presence)
List 2- unsuccessful ManC matches
(absence of proximity)
List 3- successful ManC matches to some degree
(table of degrees)

René Descartes (1596-1650)

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:40:01 UTC

Method of radical doubt: I can doubt everything expect that I am a thinking thing
Thinking separates animals from humans
Animals are mere machines
-no awareness of awareness
-no behavioural flexibility
-no language
-interactionist dualism
M<- -> B

Descartes -

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:41:57 UTC

- Interaction of a non-material mind with a material body
Homunculus problem- infinite regression
Existence of other minds

Other contributions:
The self is a point of pure thought (identity)
Nativism; we are born with some ideas (circle, God)

Other mind/body problem solutions

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Leibniz (1646-1716) every bodily event is accompanied by a mental event -> psychological parallelism
Hobbes (1588-1679) only matter exists-> materialism
Spinoza (1632-1677) mind and body are two sides of the same coin->aspectual dualism

Enlightenment

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Reason leads the way to insight and happiness, scepticism, individualism, quality
Science to replace religion
Attempts to apply Newtons ideas to psychology
Mechanisation of the mind

John Locke (1632-1704)

004595 — 2019-01-01 16:49:44 UTC

Blank slate-> Simplification
our ideas come from our experiences; sensations and reflections
the mind has not innate ideas but innate faculties ; persevering, remembering and combining ideas
sensation gives simple ideas which enter by the senses simple and unmixed
Combination and abstraction give is complex ideas

Berkley (1685-1753)

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We know that things exist if we perceive them
this follows from them being associated regularly
knowledge is based on learned associations

David Hume (1711-1776)

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Experience- not reason- brings knowledge
Complex ideas can be traced back to simple expressions
like God the self is an illusion; cannot be reduced to simple expressions

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

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Aristotle: objects have properties
Kant: we cannot know object properties- our mind actively imposes categories on experience
scientific empirical psychology is impossible
we cannot study consciousness directly
introspection changes the mind
We can have an anthropological psychology, studies of faculties
goal to improve human behaviour

Countermovement-> Romanticism

004595 — 2019-01-01 17:28:01 UTC

Conscious and unconscious
normal and abnormal
hidden forces of nature
physiognomy, phrenology
philosophical anatomy

Countermovement-> Romanticism

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Goethe (1749-1832)
Physics cannot be used to study nature/colour, it doesn't give us an insight in how we experience colour
Darkness is polar to and interacts with light
there are only 2 pure colours
blue and yellow the rest are degrees of these

19th century

004595 — 2019-01-01 17:31:04 UTC

Helmholtz (1821-1894)
Law of construction of energy
death blow to interactive dualism
materialist
empiricist
unconscious inferences
Freud
Pavlov

Wundt (1832-1920)

004595 — 2019-01-01 17:32:09 UTC

Assistant of HElmholtz
Independent experimental lab in Leipzig
Internal perception-introspection- wrong

Apperception can overcome this by organising simple ideas into complex thoughts
Apperception gives rise to attention
It is linked to the feeling of mental effort
If possible to find psychological correlated
Experimental psychology focuses on link between physiology and consciousness/ behaviour

Titchener- Structural psychology (1867-1927)

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Mind consists of images and sensations
basic sensation of elements
can be linked to physiological processes
Apperception rejected
Method; introspection
Asssocaiton explains complex ideas
Attention is not a mental process; clearest sensation
continued empirical approach
continued psychology separation from philosophy

Psycho-physics

004595 — 2019-01-01 17:37:19 UTC

Weber (1795-1878) and Fechner (1801-1887)
Fechner transformed Webers ratio to formula
S+K log R
S=sensation, K+constant, Physical intensity of stimulus

Gestalt psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 18:49:31 UTC

Gestalt is more than the sum of its elements
In our experience of consciousness it not made up of atomic elements
our mind imposes structure on reality; phi phenomenon; perception of motion is real

Phrenology; faculty psychology

004595 — 2019-01-01 18:52:11 UTC

Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828)
brain dissection methodically
bumps on human skull correspond to faculties
faculties are inborn
brain is divided into 27 separate 'organs'
19 'organs' shared with other species
'organ of religion'-proof of gods existence
led to research into localisation of function

Phrenology; faculty psychology

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Johann Casper Spurzheim (1776-1832)
Phrenology became big business
inclusion of more organs heirarchial organisation
images and busts to illustrate crainographic approach

Faculty psychology- studies of the brain

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Phineas Gage (1823-1860)
Injury changed his mind
John Harlow
Personality change, erratic behaviour, impatient

Faculty psychology: studies of the brain

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:00:31 UTC

Measurement of cranial capacities: prehistoric skulls compared to modern
292 male and 140 female brains
men more intelligent than women
Modern studies refute Brocas findings

Darwin 1809-1882

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:01:26 UTC

Variation
Selection
One of 3 major revolutions in thinking
Consequences for psychology:
Continuity animal-human
instinct
function of cognitive/social abilities and behaviour
Measurement of mental fitness/individual differences
application of knowledge for social engineering

Alfred Binet (1857-1911)

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:03:28 UTC

First psychology test to assess intelligence in children; attention, memory, verbal concepts

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)

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Bigger brain, larger head size- more intelligent
anthropometric lab at world exhibition 1885
pps said to be tested, large sample sizes
-first questionnaire
-normal distribution
-varience, standard deviation
-bivariate distribution
-correlation, regression
-composite photography
-fingerprinting
-eugenic utopia

James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

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Studied with Wundt
used 10 mental tests
supported sterilisation of less intelligent people

Applied psychology- Münsterberg (1863-1916)

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Studies with Wundt
PhD on visual perception

Behaviourism-John Watson (1878-1958)

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influenced by evolutionary theory (Darwin 1859)
Influenced by physiology (Pavlov 1849-1936)

Thorndike (1874-1949

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:11:44 UTC

Functionalist
Carried out work on children and animals
Chick would accidentally escape from experimental pens, chick in same pen could find its way out faster 2nd time and so on

Law of exercise and law of effect

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:13:04 UTC

LoEx- connection between a situation and the behaviour associated with it is strengthen by repeated use and weakened by disuse
LoEf-A connection is strengthened when is followed by a satisfying outcome and weakened when by an annoying outcome

Behaviourist principles:

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:15:06 UTC

Psych was not a natural science
Watson believed this was due to psychs preoccupation with the study of consciousness
Neither structuralism nor functionalism had made progress in understanding of the human mind

Introspection

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:16:09 UTC

Watson believed that the study of consciousness should be abandoned and the study of behaviour should take its place

Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:17:09 UTC

Purposive behaviourism
Measured objective behaviour
worked experimentally on rats
Tolaman less reductionist in his approach
Showed that rats were learning but needed an incentive to show it

Skinner (1904-1990

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:19:07 UTC

Behaviourist- operant conditioning

primary reinforcer- satisfy some physiological need
secondary reinforcer- associated with the primary reinforcer

Skinner and verbal behaviour

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:21:03 UTC

attempted to explain how language could be learned via operant conditioning
children initially learn to pair words with satisfaction of needs (minds)
The social use of language is similarly shaped (tacts

Chomksy and verbal behaviour

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:22:18 UTC

syntactic structures highlighted the inability of behaviourism to explain higher, human specific, linguistic behaviour

Fall of behaviourism

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:23:12 UTC

after 50 years of studying, little progress was made in understanding human learning

Cognitivism

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:23:59 UTC

Mind-computer anology

Methods in cognitive psych

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:24:31 UTC

experimental
computer modelling
uses the effects of stimuli on behaviour to infer intermediary processes

Cognitive research during behaviourism

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Bartlett (1886-1969)- memory
Vygotsy (1896-1934)- language and thought
Piaget (1896-1980) social and cognitive development
Turing (1912-1954) AI

Cognitivism

004595 — 2019-01-01 19:26:31 UTC

explains behaviour in terms of the mediation of cognitive processes

Developmental Psych

004595 — 2019-01-02 12:54:43 UTC

Has its own distinctive history, associated with but independent of history of general Psych (Cairns, 1998)

Parenting

004595 — 2019-01-02 12:55:47 UTC

John Locke- human mind at birth is white aper void of all characters, without any ideas role of educators and parenting
Jean-Jacques Rousseau- natural goodness of a man can be nurtured only according to this highly prescriptive model of education

Link human and animal species

004595 — 2019-01-02 12:57:44 UTC

Darwin- child is the link between human and animal species
Patterns of development across lifetime as across development of species

Historical view of child/hood

004595 — 2019-01-02 12:58:59 UTC

this view of childhood hand in hand with development of empirical method
=separate the observer from the observed
objectify child in process
only men were thought capable of such objective observation of children

Views of children

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16th century- child is lower animal (Schorsch, 1979)
Infant mewling and puking in the nurses arms
sentiment of childhood a 17th century discovery (Aries 1965)
embodiment of sinlessness and revered

Children across the ages

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:02:32 UTC

Elkind (1987)
Ancient Greece- educate children into the laws and cultural mores
Babylon- school from age 6
Roman- School from 7 to learn to read and write

18th - 19th century

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children as young As 4 work in cotton mills
child labour laws from 1833
new emphasis on education and recognising special needs of children

Empiricism dominates

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:05:46 UTC

western world- scientific method only way to get systematic body of knowledge
studying children modelled on natural sciences
search for causes of behaviour
reduce complexity of behaviour to basic components

Developmental psychology

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How individuals grow and change from conception to death

Observed behaviour from neuronal to molar

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expressive-constitite person
expressive action-reflects systems
constitute action-creative function of human action
Process though which we come to have the world we have

Instrumental-communicative person
instrumental action-means to attain an outcome
pragmatic dimension of action
intersubjective
process though which we order the things in that world

Observed change

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Transformational- emergence of novelty

Variational- individual differences

Expressive constructive- essential feature of what changes

Instrumental communicative-what it is that changes

Trouble with truth

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Popper- no amount of data that fits a theory can ever prove that it is true whereas one datum that contradicts can prove that it is false

Forerunner of Darwin

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Malthus- suggested an explantation for why animals are so well suited to environments
Lamarck- incorrectly believed giraffes evolved long necks because they stretched them to reach branches
Cuvier- catastrophism suggested that species re extinguished periodically and then replaced by different species

Natural selection

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:21:42 UTC

Darwin;
varaition
inheritence
selection
God not directly responsible for creation of species

Evolution and Psych

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:22:44 UTC

Darwin explicitly talked about a continuity between species
he suggested that because of their relatedness, humans and primates will share similar structures and behaviours

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:23:46 UTC

Interested in the differences in people
Established an anthropometric lab testing over 9000 people in a year
He believed intelligence is inherited
Founded the eugenics education society
First introduced nature/nurture argument
Introduced statistics to psych

Functionalism and evolution

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:25:55 UTC

Functionalism sought to discover the adaptive functions of consciousness
Similar introspective measures as structuralism, the nature os cognition was addressed in distinctively darwinian terms

Behaviourism and evolution

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:27:04 UTC

Wouldn't have been possible without Darwin and evolution theory

Cultural relativism

004595 — 2019-01-02 13:27:44 UTC

refers to the idea that the greatest differences between people lie in culture
Boas- if you wish to understand people you must understand their cultures

Sociobiology

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systematic study of the biological basis of all social behaviour

Evolutionary psych

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sociobiology came from biologists- evolutionary psych came from psychologists
Evolutionary psych claimed to differ from sociobiology as it is concerned with the underlying computations of the mind
Is a paradigm rather than a topic of study

Principles of evolutionary psych

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1- the brain has evolved to generate behaviour appropriate to our environmental circumstances
2- neural circuitry is adapted to solve evolutionary problems
3- much problem solving is unconscious
4-neural circuits are specialised to solve adaptive problems
5- a Stone Age brain in a modern world

Biophilia hypothesis

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:06:35 UTC

E.O. Wilson 1984
Innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes

Previous Attitudes towards animals

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Utilitarian- primarily concerned for the practical and material value of animals
Aestheic- interested in the artistic and symbolic characteristics of animals
Negativistic- active avoidance of animals due to dislike or fear
Neutralistic- passsive avoidance of animals due to indifference and lack of interest

Modern attitudes to animals

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:09:41 UTC

Kellert 1984
Dominionistic- staisfaction from mastery and control over animals typically sports
Scientific- physical attributes and biological functioning of animals
Naturalistic- affection for wildlife and outdoors
Ecologistic- concern for environment
Humanistic- strong affection for individual animals
Moralistic- treatment for animals, strong opposition for exploitation

environmental ethics

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:17:07 UTC

Anthropocentrism- humans and human welfare are most important
Biocentrism- all living things have value; some more important than others
Ecocentrism- well being of a species or community more important than that of an individual

Ecopsychology

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:18:34 UTC

studies the relationship between humans and the natural world through ecological and psychological principles

Ecothearpy- our connection to the natural world and the environment we live within

Conservation Psychology

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:20:07 UTC

is the scientific study of the reciprocal relationships between humans and the rest of nature, with the goal of encouraging conservation of the natural world

Epistemology

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:22:13 UTC

branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
knowledge relates to truth, belief and justification

Dominant approach in psych

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:23:15 UTC

Nomothetic (Galtonian) became dominant
facilitated by developments in experimental research
desire for psych to be seen as a science

Quetelet (1796-1824)

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:24:05 UTC

Described as a renaissance man
First to devise the equation for BMI
first to highlight importance of statistical analysis of behavioural data
analysed crime statistics from several countries
individual data points impossible to predict but predictions can be made from mean scores

Francis Galton

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:28:40 UTC

First to use term 'nature/nurture'
First to apply the normal distribution to intelligence

Karl Pearson (1857-1936)

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:30:12 UTC

Considered first modern statistical
Pearson chi-square test
Pearson correlation coefficient
introduced term 'variable'
used term standard deviation first

Fisher (1890-1962)

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:31:41 UTC

Professor of genetics
showed how research could statistically control for cofounding variables by factoring them out with statistics
Developed the z distribution
pioneered principles of the design of experiments and statistics of small samples and analysis of real data
Introduced the concept of a null hypothesis

Eugenics

004595 — 2019-01-02 17:34:57 UTC

First used by Galton
believed that the human race could help direct its future by selectively breeding individuals- who have desired traits
Galton, Pearson and Fisher advocated 'social imperialism' believing that 'superior races' and countries should produce more offspring than that of less developed ones

Realism

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Represents reality independent of us

Constructivist

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As constructions that are useful for interaction

Dazinger (1990)

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in favour of recognising the socially constructed nature of psychological knowledge

Realism

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Strong form- objective reality independent for the observer and theories directly reflect this
Intermediate form- objective reality independent from the observer and theories approximate this and are improved over time
Weak form- objective reality in which the observer participates and theories capture what is observable of this

Alhazen (965-1040)

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:25:56 UTC

Book of optics
influences many Western scholars: Kepler, Galileo, Grosseteste
How light Is transmitted through the eye

Fechner

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founder of psychophysics
fechner colours
aesthetics, the median, synaesthesia

Opponent process theory

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:30:24 UTC

herring predicted that the 3 colours from the cones must be somehow processed later to be either blue or yellow, not both, and eerier red or green, not both
=> cones are the first stage od colour vision
=> opponent cells come after the cones

Problems with introspection

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:33:49 UTC

only works for the really insightful/lucky
Also needs verification from other methods

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:36:10 UTC

Psychophysical tests of vision have been applied to people with Autism (Spencer et al 2000) sz (Chen et al 2003)
It is thought these individuals ahem a hyper excitable cortex

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:41:52 UTC

Eye movements tend to give an insight into attention
People with autism tend to look at faces differently- Yi et al (2014)

forensic use of models

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:43:26 UTC

People are bad at recognising shadows
Computer models don't ignore shadows
=> use computer models to detect doctored photographs

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:45:24 UTC

Both psychophysics and electrophysiology tell us something about processing

Cognitive Neuroscience

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Got its name in the later 1970s
evolved from neurology, neuroscience and cognitive science; from brain research and psychology research

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Complexity if built into the organism
Sensory information is merely data on which pre-existing mental structures
It failed to explain complex mental functions such as language and other perceptual functions

Late 1950s

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Psychologists began to think in terms of cognition, not just behaviour
Behaviour is simply evidence, not the subject matter of psychology

Birth of cog neuroscience

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Collaboration- psych, neuroscience and AI
new mission- how the brain actually enables mind
New game- cog neuroscience

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Localisationist-functions are localised to discrete areas
Holist- functions are represented throughout the cerebral cortex

Brain story- Franz J Gall (1758-1828)

004595 — 2019-01-02 20:58:59 UTC

- Phrenology
brain is organ of the mind
brain is not a single functional entity but a collection of organs representing the propensities, sentiments and faculties
These functions are located in specific parts of the brain
Other things being equal, the size of each organ is indicative of its power
The shape and size of the cranium reflects the shape and size of the underlying organs and is thus indicative of the individuals mental faculties

Aggregate field

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the whole brain participated in behaviour
Jean Marie Flourens (1794-1867)

Brain story

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19th Century- localisationist view- neurological study
20th century- localisationist view- neuroanatomical study

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Camillo Golgi (1843-1926)
Santiago Ramon Cajal (1852-1934)

20th Century

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Dominant view- some localisation of functions occurs in the cerebral cortex
Critics- it was impossible localise 'higher cortical functions'.

20th Century

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holistic view-
Constantin von Monakow
neurological study
Diaschisis- damage to one part of the brain can create problems for another
Following this, came holistic view 'the function of the brain should be always viewed as whole'

20th century

004595 — 2019-01-02 21:09:20 UTC

brain is dynamic system interconnected and mutable
behaviour resulting from a lesion was due to the whole system being out of whack
A lesioned brain was like anew system, not an old system with one part missing

Historical roots of logical positivism

004595 — 2019-01-02 21:18:41 UTC

Empiricism- the truth about the external world is based on sensory information/sensations-positive evidence (Bacon and Hume)

Positivism

004595 — 2019-01-02 21:20:24 UTC

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
The new basis for society is no longer religion or metaphysics but science, based on positive facts or direct sensation

Logic and Maths

004595 — 2019-01-02 21:31:39 UTC

(Frege, Russell, Whitehead, Wittgenstein) give us another truth; the systematic way in which we arrive at valid conclusions based on premises

Wiener Kreis

004595 — 2019-01-02 21:33:00 UTC

From 1925 weekly meetings of
Physicist Moritz Schlick
Logicians Carnap and Gödel
Mathematical Phillipp Frank
Historian Victor Kraft
Philosophers Herbert Feigl and Friedrich Waismann

Consequences of logical positivism

004595 — 2019-01-02 21:35:25 UTC

Demarcation- science is based on observable facts
pseudoscientific theories contain metaphysical elements
Progress in science
science is cumulative. current theories contain more observation statements than theories in the 17th century
philosophy of science should promote the inductuvist methods

Inductive inferences

004595 — 2019-01-02 21:37:37 UTC

Induction is not a valid method; total n of observations is irrelevant. counter examples are relevant

Neuropsychology Ancient Egypt -2000BC

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:26:46 UTC

Edwin Smith Papyrus
series of cases detailing head and neck trauma experience by soldiers after battle
first documented evidence of brain injury analysis
Demonstrated that physicians were recognising the importance of the brain as the cause of disruptions to cognitive and behavioural processes

Greek Philosophy 400-50BC

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:28:39 UTC

Debate existed over which organ had primary importance as the basis of mind or soul
Hippocrates favoured the brain as main organ of importance
Plato thought the brain and heat worked in combination
Aristotle firmly believed the heart was more important than the brain

Galen 200AD

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:30:11 UTC

Greek physician working in Rome circa 150-200AD
Interested in movement and sensation
His work on animal reflects highlighted importance of the brain and nerves over the heart and veins

Cerebral Cortex 17/18th century

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Beginning to move away from the view that the ventricles were the most important brains structure
Discovery of white and grey matter
discovery of cerebral spinal axis in early 19th century which explained involuntary reflexes

Emergence of functional localisation- 19th century

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Specific areas of the brain carry out specific functions
Phineas Gage (1848) demonstrated behavioural control processes are located in the frontal lobes
Focus on language processing- aphasic patients were identified as having similar located lesions in autopsy-specific to left hemisphere-proposed originally by Marc Dax, but made famous by Broca- dissociation between production and comprehension areas

20th century- double dissociations

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:36:01 UTC

two groups of patients perform differently on two separate, but linked, behavioural tasks. usually the two groups have different types of brain lesions;
e.g. one patient with damage to brocas area and another with damage to wernikes area.
1st patient trouble producing speech, can comprehend normally
2nd patient- difficulty with comprehension of speech but can talk normally

Equipotentiality- 20th century

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:38:36 UTC

Karl Lashley
Extreme opposite view to localisation, proposed in 19th century
brain functions as an 'undifferentiated whole'
multiple brain regions are involved in all cognitive tasks; brain works as one entity
the extent of damage, not location, determines how much function is lost

20th century- hemispheric lateralisation-split brain pateints

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:41:04 UTC

brain divided into 2 hemispheres connected by nerve fibres called corpus collasum
severing these fibres means the hemispheres cannot communicate
Sperrys spilt brain research 1981
Hemipsheric specialisation- experiments revealed each hemisphere has functional specialisations

Emergence of cognitive neuropsychology- 20th century

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:43:21 UTC

classic neuropsychology limited correlations between location of lesion and pattern of behavioural deficits
sparse use of theory to explain how brain function resulted in specific behaviours/impairments
led to integration of neuropsychology within the information processing models used in cognitive psych to explain deficits caused by brain injury

20th century- deep focus on dyslexia

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:45:36 UTC

cog models of reading could explain this phenomenon by describing the process of combining visual and linguistic information to produce speech
deep dyslexic patients read via the only non impaired route; through the cognitive system

21st century- integration of neuroimaging and lesion studies

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:47:09 UTC

models of brain function can be developed through combining multiple imaging studies of patients with brain lesions and healthy brains
this enhances understanding of cognitive processes such as language
enables more precise understanding of functional specialisation in specific areas of the cortex

Virtual lesions and predicting impairments-21st century

004595 — 2019-01-03 16:48:56 UTC

brain stimulation techniques can mimic lesions in healthy brains (TMS)
Neuroimaging can be used to match lesions with symptoms at a microstructure level; voxel based symptom lesion mapping
computational models developed from this data to predict severity of cognitive deficits after brain injury

Finding falsifications

004595 — 2019-01-03 17:21:21 UTC

Make sure that the tested knowledge is objective
only objective knowledge can be criticised/ falsified. subjective knowledge can't
Theories that have escaped falsification many times have high levels of corroboration

Demarcation criterion

004595 — 2019-01-03 17:22:48 UTC

Scientific theories are falsifiable
ideas that are not falsifiable are not scientific theories
theories must be formulated as precisely as possible, in order to make them as falsifiable as possible

Growth of scientific knowledge

004595 — 2019-01-03 17:24:17 UTC

the mechanism of growth is conjecture and reduction
conjectures must not be too bold
most important moments in the growth of knowledge are theory falsifications

Problems with falsifications

004595 — 2019-01-03 17:25:33 UTC

if a theory appears falsified, the theory may be at fault, but the observations may be at fault
not all aspects of a theory are falsifiable

004595 — 2019-01-03 17:26:24 UTC

Fallibilism- all ideas in science and in politics are wrong-> everything must be critically scrutinised
criticism is only possible in an open society- unhindered access to info, freedom to criticise, travel,ect
search for truth should never be based on authority or belief

Kuhn's paradigm approach

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:26:37 UTC

evolution of science to cumulative but revolutionary
Prescientific period
Normal science
Crisis
Revolution
Normal science again

Pre-scientific period

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:27:34 UTC

There are as many theories as there are scientists
there is no shared idea about the basics
all research starts from scratch
it is not clear what observations are relevant

Normal science- paradigm

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:28:29 UTC

It is not possible to define a paradigm
-shared metaphysical ideas
-accepted theoretical assumptions and laws
set of technical apparatus
applying known theories to as Manu aspects of nature possible
finding solutions for falsifications within the paradigm
when problems puzzles= anamolies
the paradigm is not criticised
students learn the paradigm by learning the techniques, and what the relevant observations are

Crisis

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:31:43 UTC

anomalies lead to crisis if their number is big or if they go against the basics of the paradigm/ world view
philosophical debates about the basics
things grow worse if a new paradigm appears

Revolution

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:33:14 UTC

some day some scientist develops a new view on certain problematic phenomena, thereby discarding the old view (Gestalt switch)
scientists adhering to the old paradigm either make a gestalt switch or are marginalised and die out

Demarcation and growth

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:33:53 UTC

what is scientific? all findings, procedures ect. that are part of a period of normal science-> truth is a relativistic not (relativism)

Problems with the paradigm approach

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:35:03 UTC

cannot be compared to each other as they are incommensurable, cannot determine what paradigm is better
what is true or not depends on the paradigm one appears to- relativism

Research programmes

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:36:40 UTC

Lakatos- certain metaphysical assumptions in a research programme are unfalsifiable by rational choice
these are part of the hard core of a RP
Auxiliary hypotheses that do to threaten the hard core are part of the protective belt, they are expandable.
The negative heuristics we should not change the hard core assumptions of an RP
The positive heuristics; develop 'refutable variants' or theories stemming from the research programme , so the hard core remains intact

Growth of knowledge

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:38:29 UTC

If an RP grows continuously then it is progressive. novel facts are discovered
Behaviourism did not lead to novel facts; seemed degenerative

Relativism V realism

004595 — 2019-01-03 18:39:44 UTC

relativism: knowledge, truth and morality exist in relation to culture, society or historical or individual context and are not absolute

Realism: we try to rationally determine the truth about an objective reality

Forms of psychological history

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Progressivist
'old style history' narrow focus; chronological; no wider contet; intellectual/ cultural isolation
celebratory; heroic view of contemporary history

Forms of psychological history.

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Internalist
focus only on the development within a disciples in its own terms
Externalist
focus on the external economic/cultural factors that surround a discipline

Forms of psychological history

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:34:15 UTC

Presentist
Proving that a current position is the valid one
prior histories are treated as steps in the process of discovering what we now know as the truth

Forms of psychological history

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:35:19 UTC

Newer approches
revisionist
alternative mirror image readings od traditional histoires
critical
fundamentally different kind of narrative

Metatheory perspectives

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critical history not forced to be revisionist
emphasis on social and political context
history for the purpose of critical understanding

Constructing psych

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:37:32 UTC

3 levels of social context
Experimental situation
research community
professional environment
-> context of discovery
-> context of justification

Constructing psych

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:38:56 UTC

central ideas
recapitulation theory
ontogeny reflects phylogeny- biogenetic law
without natural selection- degeneration
subverting the survival of the fittest
evolution as essentially progressive

Constructing psych

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:40:38 UTC

Experimental method (Wundt)
Evolutionary thinking (Spencer)
Emphasis on statistics (Galton)

Constructing psych

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Marketing psych
developed an applied field
tool for administrators
psych directed by funding and demands of end user
focus on statistics
standardised ability testing

Zimbardo- fundamental contributions 2004

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psych testing and assessment
positive reinforcement
pscyh therapies
self directed change
dynamic development across lifespan

Psych is a cultural historical product

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:45:31 UTC

Ahistorical view of psych lead us to consider human nature as universal
certain actions and experiences are privileged/ given more status than others

Social psych as history Gergen 1973

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:46:42 UTC

social life, specific to particular time, place and culture- more like history
knowledge influences social knowledge in 3 ways
1. need for naive subjects- knowledge had liberating effect
2. is prescriptive- values and desires influences questions/issues
3.prevalent cultural values- it invalidates cherished belief

Parker

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:49:18 UTC

turn on psych and the psychologists
where there is power there is resistance
psych work permeates society
psych as human science

Caplan and Nelson 1973

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:50:38 UTC

82% of research in 1970s blames individual rather than social circumstances
Research findings are often misdirected the attention from social probelms and instead blames person

Dialectic elements in critical psych

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:52:36 UTC

life has no neat categories, it is both good and bad
Thesis <--> Antithesis
\/
Thesis <--> Antithesis
\/
Thesis<--> Antithesis
(and so on)

Psych complex

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:57:36 UTC

Rose (1997) "psychological langage is one of the key components of the major soul"
"network of theories and practices that comprise academic, professional and popular psych"-PArker 1997

Feminist psych

004595 — 2019-01-04 16:59:16 UTC

Wilkinson 1997
Theory and practice explicitly informed by political Goals of feminism

Feminist psychologist

004595 — 2019-01-04 17:00:17 UTC

Aim to expose and challenge the operation of male power in psych