• It explores changes across various domains, including:

• Physical Development: Growth, motor skills, and biological changes

• Cognitive Development: Thinking, learning, problem-solving, and language skills

• Emotional Development: Feelings, self-regulation and social-emotional skills

• Social Development: Interactions, relationships, and social norms.

PM1 - page 8: Developmental Psychology (DP) is a scientific field of study that uses scientific methods to investigate psychological, emotional and perceptual changes that occur throughout a human's lifespan. DP investigates whether development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge or through stages. Developmental psychologists are interested in studying the extent to which development depends on experience and innate mental structures.

Discontinuous development is a concept that proposes that growth and development occur in a series of sudden shifts or leaps that tend to be linear and universal - key theorists (Piaget, Erikson)

For example: a child transitioning from speaking in single words, "dog, "milk" to forming simple sentences "I see a dog" represents discontinuous change in language development. This shift happens suddenly, rather than through a slow and stead accumulation of words.

Studying development also helps us to improve self-understanding.

Research methods describes using various methods that include: cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequential research and correlational, and experimental designs, to study how people change and develop across the lifespan.

Developmental designs are as follows:

1. Cross -sectional designs:

   Definition- compares different age groups at the same point in time.

   Purpose - quickly identifies developmental differences and can support discontinuous theories.

   Example: studying the reading abilities of 5 year old, 10 year old, and 15 year old's at the same time.

   Advantages - less time-consuming and less expensive than longitudinal studies.

   Disadvantages - cannot track individual development over time and may be affected by cohort effect differences between groups due to the time they lived in.

2. Longitudinal designs:

   Definition - tracks the same groups of individuals over a period of time.

   Purpose - examines developmental changes within individuals and can support continuous theories

   Example - following a group of children from infancy through adolescence to see how their cognitive abilities develop.

   Advantages - allow for the study of individual differences and developmental trajectories over time.

   Disadvantages - time consuming, expensive and participants may drop out of the study.

3. Sequential research:

   Definition - combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

   Purpose - allows researchers to examine both age differences and developmental changes over time.

   Example - studying the same group of children while also comparing them to different groups of children of different ages.

   Advantages - can help to overcome some of the limitations of both cross-sectional and longitudinal design and implementation

4. Correlation research:

   Definition - examines the relationship between two or more variables.

   Purpose - investigates developmental trajectories and the influence of environmental factors.

   Example - studying the relationship between parental involvement and children's academic achievement.

   Advantages - can be used to explore complex relationships that cannot be manipulated experimentally.

   Disadvantages - cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

5. Experimental Research:

   Definition - manipulates one or more variables to determine their effect on another variable.

   Purpose - to test specific hypotheses about developmental processes.

   Example: studying the effect of a new teaching method on children's learning.

   Advantages - can establish cause-and-effect relationships.

   Disadvantages - may not be ethical or practical to manipulate certain variables.

PM1: Page 30

Sigmund Freud was a famous psychologist who created a treatment called the "talking cure" to help people with problems like paralysis that didn’t have a clear cause. He believed that many of our actions are controlled by unconscious thoughts and feelings, even if we don't realize it. These hidden thoughts are kept away from our conscious mind to protect us, but sometimes they show up as symptoms. This psychological process is called Repression.Freud’s therapy tried to uncover these hidden issues, often from childhood. He said that how we grow up shapes us, and problems from our early years can affect us later in life.

Freud proposed that children have to pass through various stages of development. At each stage, children are faced with psychological conflict that they need to negotiate. (see linked video).

5 stages of Erikson’s theory

According to Erikson, a child passes through various stages of development, and at each stage a crisis must be negotiated. Successful negotiation develops a person's identity.

• stage 1 : first year/ trust vs mistrust:

  First crisis of an infant has to negotiate is how to trust someone to meet his or her needs

• Stage 2: autonomy versus shame, and doubt:

  An infant has to learn to control their behavior. Failure to meet this will lead to a child becoming doubtful and uncertain about themselves.

• Stage 3: initiative versus guilt:

  Child has to learn to become independent through initiating their own activities. If children are unable to do this, they will begin to develop feelings of guilt for establishing their own independence.

• Stage 4: industry versus inferiority:

  The stage is where a child has to learn to feel confident in themselves during activities and feel competent and valued by others.

• Stage 5: identity versus role confusion

  The prayer group is extremely important as a child begins to develop a sense of identity in relation to their peer group.

  
  

Key concepts include:

Mediation:

Vygotsky believed that learning is mediated through tools and signs, including language, cultural artifacts, and interactions with others. These tools and interactions help learners internalize knowledge and develop higher-level cognitive functions. 

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

The ZPD is the space between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with the guidance and support of a more knowledgeable other. It represents the potential for learning and development. 

• Infants learn through their senses and motor activities.

• They develop object permanence (understanding that objects still exist even when out of sight).

Example: A baby plays peekaboo. Initially, they think the person disappears when covered. Around 8 months, they begin to understand the person still exists even when hidden.

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

• Children begin using language and symbols but struggle with logic and perspective-taking.

• They show egocentrism.

Example: If you show a child two glasses of the same amount of juice and then pour one into a taller, thinner glass, they might think the taller glass has more juice because they focus only on height, not volume.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

• Children begin to think logically about concrete events.

• They can classify objects and understand cause-and-effect relationships.

Example: A child understands that 5+3 = 8 and that 8-3 = 5. They also grasp that a ball of clay remains the same amount whether rolled into a ball or flattened.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older)

• Adolescents develop abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

• They can solve problems systematically and think about future possibilities.

Example: A teenager can understand and discuss concepts like justice, democracy, and hypothetical situations, such as predicting the outcomes of scientific experiments.

Piagets theory in 2 minutes: https://youtu.be/2spOA-H6JEY?si=58fS29NwVl5n9Lxm

Universality refers to the parts of development that all children go through, no matter where they live or how they are raised. These are common patterns in growth and learning.

Example: All children learn to walk, talk, and form relationships as they grow – even if the exact timing is different.

Role: It helps teachers and caregivers know what to expect at different ages, and plan learning and support based on general stages of development.

Socio-Cultural Context in Development:

Socio-cultural context means the environment a child grows up in – including their culture, family values, traditions, language, community, and social background. This strongly shapes how and when development happens.

Example: In some cultures, children are expected to be independent early, while in others, they stay closely connected to their family for longer.

Role: It reminds us that each child is unique, and development is influenced by their culture and surroundings. What is normal in one context might not be the same in another.

Approx. time: Around 18–20 weeks, fully developed by 25–28 weeks.

Details: The foetus can respond to sounds, especially the mother's voice and heartbeat.

Smell:

Approx. time: Around 28 weeks.

Details: Smell develops through amniotic fluid, which carries scents from the mother’s diet.

Feel pain:

Approx. time: Possibly from 20–24 weeks, more certain by 28 weeks.

Details: Pain pathways begin forming by 20 weeks; some scientists argue awareness of pain is later.

Feel touch:

Approx. time: Starts around 8 weeks, well developed by 20 weeks.

Details: The first sense to develop. Foetus can respond to touch, especially around the face and feet.

See:

Approx. time: Begins developing at 26–28 weeks.

Details: Eyes open and foetus can respond to light, but vision is limited in the womb.

Habituate:

Approx. time: From around 32 weeks.

Details: The foetus can learn and "tune out" repeated, non threatening stimuli (e.g., same sound).

Foetal breathing:

Approx. time: Begins around 20–24 weeks.

Details: The foetus "practises" breathing movements, though no air is involved, only amniotic fluid.

1. Stress Hormones Cross the Placenta:

• When a mother is stressed or anxious, her body produces higher levels of stress hormones like cortisol.

• These hormones can cross the placenta and affect the baby’s developing brain and nervous system.

2. Changes in Blood Flow:

• Stress can reduce blood flow to the uterus, which means less oxygen and nutrients reach the foetus.

• This can lead to low birth weight, preterm birth, or growth delays.

3. Long-Term Effects on the Baby:

• High levels of maternal stress have been linked to:

• Increased risk of emotional or behavioural problems in the child

• Delayed brain development

• Higher chance of the child developing anxiety, ADHD, or learning difficulties later in life

4. Weakened Immune Function:

• Chronic stress may weaken the mother’s immune system, increasing the risk of infections that can also affect the foetus.

PM1 - Chapter 4 pg. 115-116

Temperament - an individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of emotionally responding to events.

There are 3 temperamental categories and 3 dimensions:

Categories:

1. Easy - cheerful and even-tempered Adapt easily

2. Difficult - active, intense, irritable. Negative towards new experiences

3. Slow to warm up - much less active and intense, take some time to adapt to new experiences

   Dimensions:

1. Surgency, or extraversion - approach new experiences actively and energetically

2. Negative affectivity - sad, easily frustrated or irritable

3. Effortful control - children who are able to control their behaviour, exhibit self regulate