Activity: Research for Critical Thinking by Kelly

What is critical thinking?

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According to Judge, Jones and McCreery (2009) critical thinking means looking at ideas and information with a questioning mindset, and instead of just accepting what we’re told, we consider it from different angles, and reflect on how it fits with our own beliefs, values, and way of thinking.

Judge, B., Jones, P. and McCreery, E., 2009. Critical thinking skills for education students. Exeter: Learning Matters.

What supports critical thinking?

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Clear Expectations and Definitions
Students need explicit explanations of what critical thinking is and how it is assessed (Beasley & Cao, 2014).

Scaffolding

Moon (2008) emphasises that learners cannot engage in higher-level analysis or evaluation unless they first feel secure in their basic comprehension, therefore scaffolding from educators helps bridge that gap from basic comprehension.

Feedback

Moon (2008) also suggests that feedback is important to help students identify gaps in reasoning, challenge assumptions and strengthen their arguements. Therefore, as educators we can move from simply correcting errors to using feedback to provoke students to think deeper.

Beasley, C. and Cao, B., 2014. Thinking critically about critical thinking in the First-Year Experience. In: P. Kandlbinder and D. Boud, eds. Universities in Transition. Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press, pp.205–228.
Moon, J., 2008. Critical Thinking: An Exploration of Theory and Practice. London: Routledge.

Issues with critical thinking in education

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Especially in education there can be the issue that students don't have the knowledge yet to be able to challenge the truth of what they've just heard or read (Tittle, 2011). This is particularly evident in some of my lower level ESL classes where students only have the English skills, whereas a lot of their coursebook implies they already have existing knowledge.

Define critical thinking

2025-05-02 12:31:51 UTC

According to Horvath and Forte (2011) a definition for Critical Thinking is still being developed, modern literature focuses Critical Thinking on good reasoning and judgement.

Reference:

Horvath, C.P. and Forte, J.M. (2011), Critical Thinking, (eds). Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. [Accessed 2^nd May, 2025.]

Methods to encourage critical thinking

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Research conducted by Phillips (2023) suggests the use of several strategies in the classroom such as anticipation guides using pre-reading strategies and ‘my turn, your turn’ modelling thinking skills.

Phillips, H. (2023), ‘Developing critical thinking in classrooms: Teacher responses to a Reading-for-Meaning workshop’, Reading & Writing. Vol. 14, No.1. DOI: 10.4102/rw.v14i1.401

Issues with critical thinking

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Teacher education seems to be the biggest issue, they need to firstly understand critical thinking and then be equipped with the tools and strategies to promote critical thinking. In the research conducted by Phillips (2023), teachers were educated on specific methods that they then tested in their classrooms with great success.

Phillips, H. (2023), ‘Developing critical thinking in classrooms: Teacher responses to a Reading-for-Meaning workshop’, Reading & Writing. Vol. 14, No.1. DOI: 10.4102/rw.v14i1.401

Supports critical thinking

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Critical thinking is not an innate skill (Horvath and Forte, 2011). Teachers need to support learners in developing critical thinking.

Different strategies can be applied such as using questions to activate prior knowledge and encourage thinking, discussions and modelling thinking (Phillips, 2023).

Horvath, C.P. and Forte, J.M. (2011), Critical Thinking, (eds). Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. [Accessed 2^nd May, 2025.]

Phillips, H. (2023), ‘Developing critical thinking in classrooms: Teacher responses to a Reading-for-Meaning workshop’, Reading & Writing. Vol. 14, No.1. DOI: 10.4102/rw.v14i1.401

AI within critical thinking

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Using AI to analyse texts supports critical thinking and will help students. Rather than extensive research and perseverance, AI can be used to do research for students, which means there is more capacity to think critically.

This will allow students to think critically and potentially unearth new links with data that may never have been discovered. before.

Darwin, D., Rusdin, D., Mukminatien, N., Suryati, N., Laksmi, E.D. & Marzuki (2024) Critical thinking in the AI era: An exploration of EFL students’ perceptions, benefits, and limitations, Cogent Education, 11(1), 2290342. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2290342

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Critical thinking is a purposeful, reflective process of analysing and evaluating information to form reasoned judgements. Facione (2015) defines it as “judging in a reflective way what to do or what to believe,” emphasising cognitive skills such as interpretation, analysis, inference, and explanation. Similarly, Brookfield (2012) describes critical thinking as the process of identifying and challenging assumptions, exploring alternative perspectives, and engaging in reflective scepticism. Both definitions highlight critical thinking as an active, socially situated practice essential for informed decision-making and academic engagement. It enables learners to question received knowledge and develop independent, well-reasoned viewpoints.

References

Brookfield, S. D. (2012). Teaching for critical thinking. Jossey-Bass.
Facione, P. A. (2015). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Insight Assessment.

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Critical thinking is supported by teaching strategies that encourage active engagement, reflection, and dialogue. Brookfield (2012) emphasises the importance of creating learning environments where students feel safe to question assumptions and explore diverse perspectives. Additionally, Beasley and Cao (2014) argue that critical thinking is best developed when situated within meaningful social and disciplinary contexts, allowing students to relate abstract ideas to real-world issues. Collaborative learning, open discussion, and reflective tasks all enhance students' capacity to think critically by fostering metacognitive awareness and intellectual curiosity.

References

Beasley, C. & Cao, B. (2014). Thinking critically about critical thinking in the First-Year Experience. In H. Brook et al. (Eds.), Universities in Transition (pp. 205–228). University of Adelaide Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (2012). Teaching for critical thinking. Jossey-Bass.

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While critical thinking is essential in higher education, it has limitations when applied without considering its broader context. Facione (2015) notes that critical thinking is often reduced to a set of cognitive skills, which may overlook the social, emotional, and cultural dimensions of learning. This narrow approach can limit student engagement, particularly for those whose perspectives or experiences do not align with dominant academic frameworks. Additionally, overemphasising logical critique may discourage creativity or collaboration. For critical thinking to be truly effective, it must be taught in ways that are inclusive, reflective, and connected to real-world contexts.

Reference

Facione, P. A. (2015). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Insight Assessment.

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Encouraging critical thinking in education requires active, student-centred methods that promote inquiry, reflection, and dialogue. Strategies such as open-ended questioning, problem-based learning, and collaborative discussions help students evaluate assumptions and consider multiple perspectives (Brookfield, 2012). Embedding critical thinking within disciplinary contexts supports deeper engagement by making learning relevant and meaningful (Beasley & Cao, 2014). Reflective writing tasks also foster metacognition, enabling students to assess their own reasoning processes (Moon, 2008). These approaches create inclusive learning environments where students feel empowered to challenge ideas and develop independent, analytical thought.

References

What is critical thinking?

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Basham and Irwin (2011) state that "critical" can have both positive and negative connotations, but in the context of thinking, it refers to the ability to think more clearly and intelligently, with skills such as reasoning and formulating ideas coming to the forefront (Basham & Irwin, 2011).

Basham, A., & Irwin, W. (2011). Critical Thinking. Retrieved from https://dimparato.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/critical-thinking.pdf

Ways to support Critical Thinking.

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Sharma et al. (2022) emphasize the importance of integrating critical thinking into curricula and outline several strategies to support its development. These include inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning, and collaborative learning, each of which plays a unique role in fostering students' critical thinking capabilities.

Inquiry-Based Learning: This involves encouraging students to ask questions and seek answers through investigation. For example, in a science lesson, students might explore the question, “What factors affect plant growth?” by designing experiments and analyzing the outcomes.
Problem-Based Learning: Students are presented with real-world challenges and must research and devise potential solutions. For instance, in a business class, learners might be tasked with creating a sustainable marketing plan for a local startup, requiring them to apply critical thinking and reasoning skills.
Collaborative Learning: This strategy focuses on peer interaction and shared responsibility for learning. A classroom example could include group debates on ethical dilemmas, where students must work together to form and defend well-reasoned arguments.

These approaches not only deepen understanding but also help students develop key critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and reasoning.

Reference:

Sharma, M., Doshi, B. M., Verma, M., & Verma, A. K. (2022). Strategies for developing critical-thinking capabilities. World Journal of English Language, 12(4), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v12n4p110

An example of the limitations of critical thinking.

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Living and working in China offers firsthand insight into how critical thinking can be improved in Chinese schools. Lyu (2024) highlights that the intense pressure from high-stakes exams like the Gaokao and Zhongkao, along with a cultural tendency to avoid confrontation and maintain harmony, significantly hinders the development of critical thinking. These systemic and cultural factors discourage open questioning and independent thought, making it essential to reform educational practices to better support critical engagement.

Methods to improve critical thinking.

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Inquiry-Based Learning: This strategy encourages students to ask questions and seek their own answers through exploration. It fosters curiosity and enables deeper engagement with the material, prompting students to think critically as they work through problems and discover knowledge independently.

Socratic Questioning: A method that stimulates critical thinking by challenging students to think about their beliefs and reasoning. Through carefully crafted questions, students are guided to critically examine their ideas, assumptions, and the logic behind their arguments, promoting reflective thinking.

Technology Integration: The use of digital tools in the classroom offers interactive experiences that enhance students' ability to think critically. Technology, such as educational apps and online resources, provides opportunities for students to engage in problem-solving tasks, access a wide array of information, and collaborate in real-time, all of which support critical thinking development.

Reference:

Ranbir, D. (2024). Promoting Critical Thinking Skills in the Classroom. Universal Research Reports, 11(2), 154–158. https://doi.org/10.36676/urr.v11.i2.1276

The Delphi Report (1990)

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For the purposes of the US education authorities, where in the 1980s Critical Thinking was being seen as a new and essential facet, Dr Peter Facione of Santa Clara University attempted to arrive at a consensus for a useful definition of critical thinking. To do this he assembled a panel of 46 experts, including educators and philosophers and conducted a “Delphi” study, where different ideas could be presented, critiqued, discussed and amended by the experts, but in an anonymised way. The published Delphi Report (Facione, 1990) contains a “consensus statement” which describes critical thinking and the critical thinker. However, it characterises these descriptions as ideals, rather than absolute requirements.

The report lists 7 core skills for critical thinking: Interpretation; Analysis; Evaluation; Inference; Explanation; Self-Regulation. Each of these are further analysed into two or three sub-skills. In addition to these skills, the report discusses dispositions that the critical thinker has. These include “a critical spirit, a probing inquisitiveness, a keenness of mind, a zealous dedication to reason and a hunger… for reliable information”. These dispositions are analysed as being either cognitive or affective.

Although the group came to a consensus about critical thinking and being a critical thinker might entail, there was dissent about how the terms themselves should be defined. For example, should affective dispositions be included in the definition? Is a “good” critical thinker someone who uses their critical thinking skills and dispositions effectively, or is it also necessary that they are used ethically too?

In conclusion, Facione’s work with this Delphi group resulted not so much in a definition of critical thinking, but a consensus of what ideals a critical thinker should aspire to in order to think critically.

Reference

Facione, P.A. (1990), Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction (The Delphi Report). American Philosophical Association. Available from: https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialSciences/ppecorino/CT-Expert-Report.pdf. [Accessed: 6 May 2025]

What is Critical thinking

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Critical reflection which involves an awareness of the reasons behind our perceptions, emotions, and actions. This entails realizing that our activities are regulated by our values and beliefs and requires a critical appraisal of our assumptions from conscious and unconscious prior learning and their outcomes (Ghanizadeh 2016)

Ghanizadeh, A. 2017, "The interplay between reflective thinking, critical thinking, self-monitoring, and academic achievement in higher education", Higher Education, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 101-114.

Support Critical Thinking

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Critical thinking also needs the input of others as sources to elaborate information , data, facts and opinions and through the active engagement of other learners and through the question and answer process (T Santoso et al 2018)

The role of student’s critical asking question in developing student’s critical thinking skills To cite this article: T Santoso et al 2018 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 953 012042

Define Critical Thinking.

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Petress, K. (1988) stated "Critical thinking is a pervasive academic literature term that is seldom clearly or comprehensively defined. The definitions that are available in various sources are quite disparate and are often narrowly field dependent", however Myers, D. (2003) summarises it as "Critical thinking examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates

evidence, and assesses conclusions."

References

Myers, D.G. (2003). Exploring Psychology, 5th ed. New York: Worth

Petress, K. (1998). What Is Critical Thinking and Why Is It Useful? University Times; University of Maine at Presque Isle.

Supports Critical Thinking

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Moore, T. (2011) stated “Generic approaches to critical thinking risk stripping it of epistemological depth. Embedding critical thinking within disciplinary discourse enhances students’ understanding of how knowledge is constructed and challenged.”

Whilst Brookfield (2012) identified that teaching practices that encourage reflection, questioning, and dialogue are shown to be key to supporting critical thinking.

References

Brookfield, S. D. (2012). Teaching for Critical Thinking: Tools and Techniques to Help Students Question Their Assumptions. Jossey-Bass.

Moore, T. (2011). Critical thinking and disciplinary thinking: a continuing debate. Higher Education Research & Development, 30(3), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2010.501328

Issues with critical thinking

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Moore, T. (2011), states “The term ‘critical thinking’ is used with such frequency and variability that it often becomes a rhetorical tool rather than a meaningful pedagogical aim.”, whilst Davies, M. (2013) advises “This generic model ignores the ways knowledge is constructed and contested within disciplines.”

References

Davies, M. (2013). Critical thinking and the disciplines reconsidered. Higher Education Research & Development

Moore, T. (2011). Critical thinking and disciplinary thinking: a continuing debate. Higher Education Research & Development

Methods to encourage critical thinking

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Encouraging open-ended discussion, debate, and dialogue helps students examine multiple perspectives, question assumptions, and articulate their reasoning.

Brookfield (2012), states “Dialogic approaches create spaces for learners to voice their perspectives, challenge dominant views, and engage in collaborative meaning-making—central practices in critical thinking.” whilst Tiwari et al (2006), “Problem-based learning fosters the ability to evaluate evidence, weigh alternatives, and make reasoned decisions—core dimensions of critical thinking.”

Reference

Brookfield, S. D. (2012). Teaching for Critical Thinking: Tools and Techniques to Help Students Question Their Assumptions. Jossey-Bass.

Tiwari, A., et. al(2006). A comparison of the effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of students’ critical thinking. Medical Educatio

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Ghanizadeh (2017:11 ) refers to the importance of teaching critical thinking skills as essential aspect of learning and teaching and that the teaching process ‘must go beyond book reading and involve students in inference-making, recognition and evaluation of arguments, deduction, and interpretation’.

emotions, and actions. This entails realizing that our activities are regulated by our values and beliefs and requires a critical appraisal of our assumptions from conscious and unconscious prior learning and their outcomes (Ghanizadeh A 2016)

This is particularly relevant in the education of social workers where values, perceptions and emotions need to be considered alongside the fact based learning that is required to develop professional knowledge.

Ghanizadeh, A. 2017, "The interplay between reflective thinking, critical thinking, self-monitoring, and academic achievement in higher education", Higher Education, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 101-114.

Methods to encourage critical thinking

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Crowe et al (2006) refer to the use of deconstructive approach in the education of mental health nursing students, that seeks to deconstruct debates about health and illness and ie the ‘person may have an illness but is not an unhealthy person’ and an approach ‘to learn about historical and socio-cultural development of the fundamental assumptions and norms within the system of mental health system. (2006:83).

Crowe, Marie T, and Jane O’Malley. “Teaching Critical Reflection Skills for Advanced Mental Health Nursing Practice: A Deconstructive-Reconstructive Approach.” Journal of advanced nursing 56.1 (2006): 79–87. Web

Defines of Critical Thinking

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Ennis defines Critical Thinking as "reasonable and reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do.” Beyond this definition, Ennis explains that critical thinkers are likely to care whether what they believe is true; are careful to give all sides of an argument; as well as to care about others, including not intimidating others with debate and argument. Ennis sums this up as a critical thinkers "wanting to get things right," researching different arguments around a topic so they are able to present an unbiased argument, and delivering their argument in a responsible way that avoids intimidation of others.

Ennis, R., (2011). The Nature of Critical Thinking: An Outline of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities. Microsoft Word - The Nature of Critical Thinking_51711.doc