Beginning in 1565. And lasting more than 250 years, Spanish galleons sailed from Acapulco, Mexico to Manila in the Philippines. Beginning in 1680, the Spanish began the construction of four forts to protect the area from pirates and privateers (Duane Marsteller). The construction of Fort Nuestra de la Soledad was overseen by Governor Alexandro Parreno, and was fitted for seven guns, several soldiers, and their arsenal. It was constructed after the Governor decided that Fort Santo Angel, which was built nearby in 1756, had fallen into a dangerous state of disrepair.

By 1815, the galleons were no longer stopping at Guam during their journeys, as there was a period of civil unrest in Mexico, rendering the trip to Acapulco useless. The Fort began to fall into disrepair until the Government of Guam restored it and turned it into a park after World War II (Duane Marsteller). Spanish colonialism ended in Guam by the end of the nineteenth century, though Chamorro people still celebrate many Spanish-influenced cultural aspects such as Catholicism. 

The Chamorro identity is identified as being fluid and intermixed with Mexican, Filipino, and Caroline Islander immigrants. Even their diet contains these influences, and their language also adopts many Spanish influences (Bayman). Fort Nuestra de la Soledad is one of a handful of major structures still standing from this period, the Spanish influence is still found throughout much of Guam, such as the buildings and bridges constructed after the end of their colonialism in the area. Even the Guam Preservation Trust, a local nonprofit agency, has plans to further honor their Spanish heritage with future projects in the works. It is said that “contemporary representations of Chamorro cultural heritage link Mariana Islanders to their ancient past and emergent future” (Bayman). Fort Nuestra de la Soledad remains an important location for continuing archeological research regarding the Spanish colonization of the Mariana Islands. 

 

Bibliography

Bayman, James M. "Spanish Colonial History and Archaeology in the Mariana Islands: Echoes from the Western Pacific." Archaeologies of Early Modern Spanish Colonialism (2016): 229-252.

Belejack, Barbara. "Of Pirates and Prehistory." The New York Times (1999): 164.

Guam Preservation Trust. Guampreservationtrust.org/fort-nuestra-de-la-soledad. 2023. 8 September 2023.

Guampedia Staff. Guampedia.com/fort-soledad. 7 February 2023. 9 September 2023.

Marsteller Duane, Marsteller, Tracy. MHDB.Org. 14 November 2021. 2023 9 September.

Quintana, Joe. "The Development of Humåtak Village: The Life-Line of the Acapulco-Manila Galleon Trade." Archaeology of Manila Galleon Seaports and Early Maritime Globalization (2019): 187-190.

The treaty itself according to Vitoria, Queen of England, was drafted to protect chiefs and subtribes of New Zealand. To preserve peace, and to have the Queen’s government established over all parts of the land. It was an attempt to keep peace between existing Maori peoples and Europeans living in New Zealand (Johnson). In the late 1830s, a large number of British Immigrants arrived in New Zealand with plans for extensive settlement. The British Government realized that they had to find a way to annex the country, protect Maori, and regulate British subjects, while also securing commercial interests. The treaty also has significant changes in translation from Maori to English. Most notably, the word ‘sovereignty’ was translated to ‘kawanatanga,’ which is governance. This caused and continues to cause confusion as to the treaty’s true meaning (New Zealand History Staff).

The Waitangi National Trust covers more than 1200 acres and is situated between the Waitangi River and the coastline at Wairoa Bay. The location was gifted to the people of New Zealand by Governor Bledisloe and Lady Bledisloe in 1932. The Treaty House, which is now the main attraction at the site, was built in 1833. It was originally a British residency for James Busby and his family (World Heritage Convention Staff). This was the destination where meetings were set up to establish an independent Maori government and resulted in a Declaration of Independence in 1835. The residence was also the scene for the discussions that eventually resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. It is New Zealand’s earliest precut building, meaning the wood was shipped from Sydney, Australia (World Heritage Convention Staff).

In February 2016, The Museum of Waitangi opened to the public. It is a two-story building designed to fit into the natural landscape and houses artifacts and specific stories regarding the Treaty and its significance.  The upstairs houses evolving and changing exhibits.  Ko Waitangi Tenei,' or 'This is Waitangi.' covers the ground floor of the Museum of the Waitangi, and tells the story of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 (Mulholland). Each year there are gatherings of historically significant people celebrating the treaty. Queen Elizabeth II was among these celebrated guests, and her visit was memorialized in photos in 1963 that are still relevant today, as the significance is still as strong as it was in the past (National Library Staff).

Bibliography

Belgrave, Michael. “Beyond the Treaty of Waitangi: Māori Tribal Aspirations in an Era of Reform, 1984-2014.” The Journal of Pacific History (2014): pp. 193–213.

Johnson, Jay T., Larsen,  Soren C.  Being Together in Place: Indigenous Coexistence In a More Than Human World. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017.

McLean, Martin. The Garden of New Zealand: A History of the Waitangi Treaty House and Grounds from Pre-European Times To the Present. Aukland: Historic Investigation Team for Science and Research Division, Dept. of Conservation, 1990.

Mulholland, Malcolm. "Museum of Waitangi, New Zealand." Australian Historical Studies (2017): 592-601.

National Library Staff. Natlib.govt.nz/records/36062312. 6 February 1963. 8 September 1963.

New Zealand History Staff. Nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/the-treaty-in-brief. 17 May 2017. 10 September 2023.

Phillips, Jock. "Māori and Royal Visits, 1869-2015: From Rotorua to Waitangi." Royal Studies Journal (2018): 34.

World Heritage Convention Staff. whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5127/. 30 March 2007. 11 September 2023.

 

 

Sri Siva Subramaniya Swami Temple is the main center for all practicing Hinduism in Fiji. Many Fijians have actively pursued this site to convert Fiji’s Indian population to Christianity. Just as the Fijians were once looked at as cannibals and heathens, those now devoutly Christian see Hinduism as outsiders in need of salvation. It is also the site where a 77-year-old man was beaten by a devout Christian Fijian who demanded that the man instead devote his life to Christ. This is but one sad example of how much has changed since the days of colonialization in Fiji, and the complex situation that has arisen as a result (Hinduism Today Staff). 

After Fiji’s colonization in 1874, Christianity spread quickly and took hold of the majority if the Fijian population. In 1879, Indian laborers were brought to Fiji and indentured workers on sugarcane plantations. Almost 60,000 Indians arrived in Fiji between 1879 and 1916. While Fiji was colonized by the British, and gave preferential treatment to the Indigenous Fijians, Indian labor was important to the growth of sugarcane production. With the Indian population came Hinduism, which remains extremely popular to this day (Hinduism Today Staff). The construction of Sri Siva Subramaniya Swami Temple has brought with it many significant leaders from India to ensure its lasting legacy. Thirty-four percent of Fiji are now devout Hindus, and this is causing an interesting clash of cultures in a place that had neither religion present when it was left to Indigenous peoples (Hinduism Today Staff).

The Sri Siva Subramaniya Swami Temple is the largest Hindu temple in the Southern Hemisphere. With the first wave of Christianity brought upon by missionaries in the 1800s, Hinduism represents another step away from the beliefs once celebrated by Fijian natives. Once thought of as savage headhunters, Fiji is all but unrecognizable beyond tourist attractions as the culture it once was before being colonized. 

In January 2016, more than 5,000 devotees attended an offering to Nadi. Hindus hope that this offering helps the Fijians unite, though Christian devotees do not appear to be ready to make that commitment at this time (Kumar). The Sri Siva Subramaniya Swami Temple represents a complex relationship with colonization, and the chain of events that occurred in Fiji, which completely altered its cultural background for the majority of its Indigenous population.

Bibliography

Fiji Times Staff. "Place of Worship Had a Facelift ." Fiji Times (2005): 15.

Getty Images Staff. www.gettyimages.co.nz/photos/sri-siva-subramaniya-temple. 2023. 2023 8 September.

Hinduism Today. "Fiji: A Chronology of Attacks Against Hindus and Hindu Places of Worship, 1987 to 1994." Hinduism Today (1994): 9.

Hinduism Today Staff. "India's Gift to the Islands." Hinduism Today (1998): 7.

Kumar, Rashika. Fijivillage.com/news/Thousands-expected-to-attend-the-Nadi-Sri-Siva-Subramaniya-Temple-to-celebrate-Maha-Shiv-Ratri-tonight. 3 November 2021. 8 September 2023.

MacNevin, Lindsay. timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/sri-siva-subramaniya-temple. 7 March 2017. 9 September 2023.

 

 

The palace has since been the site of many protests and movements calling for Hawaiian sovereignty to be honored. January 17, 1993, saw a protest of over 15,000 Hawaiians at 'Iolani Palace, as they tried to gain access to Hawaiian Trust Lands. This, among other demonstrations, shows the passion of the Hawaiian people as they use their palace as a launching point for their protests to take back their stolen land. The protests also showed a unity among Hawaiians which was being questioned at the time for various reasons, and demonstrated the power they had when united (Lilikala).

Today, the palace stands as a museum and has been restored as closely as possible to its original glory. Some of these restorations depict artwork from 'Iolani Palace gifted to King Kalakaua by the French before the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. A time of transition when the Hawaiian Kingdom still believed that their independence was going to be recognized, and the kingdom would thrive. These portraits speak to the end of an era, and the last of a time when Hawaii's independence was uninterrupted by the occupation of the United States (Hackler). The furnishings were once auctioned and given away around 1900, but are now being retrieved and brought back to their home. Using old Hawaiian newspapers and other research, these items are being returned after being scattered to countries around the world. While some of the furnishings are replicas, using modern technology, curators are restoring 'Iolani Palace to look as much like it did in all of its glory before the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom (Kahn).

Today the palace hosts events, offers facility rentals, and has a gift shop. It is now a National Historic Landmark (Division of State Parks Staff). It is administered by the Division of State Parks, and managed by the Friends of ‘Iolani Palace under a long-term lease. November 2000 saw the introduction of Hawaiian royal regalia to the public at 'Iolani Palace. It marks the first time such exhibits were open to the public in the only royal palace on American soil, though calling it American soil is a stretch. Just before this historic exhibit opened, the Rice vs. Cayetano Supreme Court case stated that the electorate office of the OHA trustees could not be restricted to just Hawaiians, adding more tension to an already fragile relationship between the United States and Native Hawaiians (Kelly). Once the seat of the Hawaiian monarchy, then the capital building of the overthrowing government, and now a heritage site. 'Iolani Palace now represents the robbery of an independent state occupied by intruding Americans illegally. It is now inhabited by tourists and guides using the word aloha as a marketing gimmick (Williams).

Bibliography

Division of State Parks Staff. Dlnr.hawaii.gov/dsp/parks/oahu/iolani-palace-state-monument. 1 September 2023. 8 September 2023.

Hackler, Rhoda E. "'Iolani Palace Portaits." (1971): 39-49.

Kahn, Eve M. "A Hawaiian Palace Reclaims Its Heritage." The New York times (2015): C23. Newspaper.

Kelly, Marjorie. "'lolani Palace Galleries, Honolulu, Hawaii, permanent installation:'IOLANI PALACE GALLERIES, Honolulu, Hawaii, permanent installation." Museum Anthropology (2001): 54-56.

Lilikala, Kameleihiwa. "The Hawaiian sovereignty movement: An update from Honolulu ." The Journal of Pacific History (1993): 63-72.

Williams, Liza Keānuenueokalani, Gonzalez, Vernadette Vicuña. "Indigeneity, Sovereignty, Sustainability and Cultural Tourism: Hosts and Hostages at ʻIolani Palace, Hawai'i." Journal of Sustainable Tourism (2017): 668-683.