M12 Court Case Timeline by Ashlyn Clemons

Pre 1970s

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:00:08 UTC

Boston Public Schools maintain racial segregation through an unfair school assignments, zoning, and resource allocation.

1965

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:00:51 UTC

Massachusetts passes the Racial Imbalance Act, requiring school districts to desegregate schools with over 50% nonwhite students, but the Boston School Committee resists implementation.

March 1972

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:37:16 UTC

Tallulah Morgan and other Black parents file a lawsuit (Morgan v. Hennigan) against the Boston School Committee, alleging intentional racial segregation in violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

June 21, 1974

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:38:16 UTC

Judge W. Arthur Garrity Jr. rules that Boston Public Schools are unconstitutionally segregated and orders desegregation through mandatory busing.

September 1974

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:39:06 UTC

Phase 1 of court-ordered busing begins, sending students between mostly black and white neighborhoods, sparking protests, boycotts, and violent resistance, especially in South Boston.

1975-1978

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:41:55 UTC

Continued unrest as busing expands; white flight to suburbs and private schools increases. Federal oversight continues.

1977

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:42:11 UTC

Judge Garrity mandates additional changes to ensure compliance, including faculty desegregation.

1985

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:42:38 UTC

Judge Garrity begins phasing out court supervision, citing progress in desegregation efforts.

1987

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:43:00 UTC

Control over student assignments returns to the Boston School Committee.

1988

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:43:18 UTC

Federal court officially ends oversight of Boston’s desegregation plan.

1954

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 14:44:46 UTC

Brown v. Board of Education: U.S. Supreme Court declares racial segregation in schools unconstitutional, setting a precedent for challenging educational segregation of all kinds, including for students with disabilities.

1972

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 15:17:13 UTC

PARC v. Pennsylvania & Mills v. Board of Education: Courts rule that students with disabilities have the right to public education, reinforcing the broader fight against educational discrimination.

1975

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 15:18:09 UTC

Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) Passed: Inspired in part by the desegregation movement, this law (now IDEA) guarantees students with disabilities the right to a free appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment.

1990

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 15:18:51 UTC

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Passed: Expands protections for individuals with disabilities, reinforcing anti-discrimination policies in education and beyond.

2004

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 15:19:10 UTC

IDEA Reauthorized: Strengthens inclusion policies, ensuring students with disabilities receive appropriate support in general education settings.

1972

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 15:21:01 UTC

PARC v. Pennsylvania & Mills v. Board of Education: Courts rule that students with disabilities cannot be excluded from public education, using equal protection arguments similar to those in racial desegregation cases.

2017

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 15:22:22 UTC

Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District: U.S. Supreme Court rules that students with disabilities are entitled to meaningful educational progress, further applying educational equity principles from Morgan v. Hennigan.

1857

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:02:57 UTC

With the Dred Scott decision, the Supreme Court upholds the denial of citizenship to African Americans and rules that descendants of slaves are "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect."

1861

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:03:14 UTC

Southern states secede from the Union. The Civil War begins.

1863

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:03:30 UTC

President Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves in Southern states. Because the Civil War is ongoing, the Proclamation has little practical effect.

1865

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:03:42 UTC

The Civil War ends; the Thirteenth Amendment is enacted to abolish slavery.

1868

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:03:58 UTC

The Fourteenth Amendment is ratified, guaranteeing "equal protection under the law"; citizenship is extended to African Americans.

1875

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:04:11 UTC

Congress passes the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which bans racial discrimination in public accommodations.

1883

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:04:22 UTC

The Supreme Court strikes down the Civil Rights Act of 1875 finding that discrimination by individuals or private businesses is constitutional.

1890

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:04:35 UTC

Louisiana passes the first Jim Crow law requiring separate accommodations for Whites and Blacks.

1896

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:04:48 UTC

The Supreme Court authorizes segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson, finding Louisiana's "separate but equal" law constitutional. The ruling, built on notions of white supremacy and black inferiority, provides legal justification for Jim Crow laws in southern states.

1899

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:05:09 UTC

The Supreme Court allows a state to levy taxes on black and white citizens alike while providing a public school for white children only. (Cumming v. Richmond (Ga.) County Board of Education)

1908

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:05:23 UTC

The Supreme Court upholds a state's authority to require a private college to operate on a segregated basis despite the wishes of the school.

1938

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:05:41 UTC

The Supreme Court rules the practice of sending black students out of state for legal training when the state provides a law school for whites within its borders does not fulfill the state's "separate but equal" obligation. The Court orders Missouri's all-white law school to grant admission to an African American student.

1940

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:06:01 UTC

30% of Americans — 40% of Northerners and 2% of Southerners — believe that Whites and Blacks should attend the same schools.

A federal court requires equal salaries for African American and white teachers.

1947

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:06:15 UTC

In a precursor to the Brown case, a federal appeals court strikes down segregated schooling for Mexican American and white students. (Westminster School Dist. v. Mendez) The verdict prompts California Governor Earl Warren to repeal a state law calling for segregation of Native American and Asian American students.

1948

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:06:32 UTC

Arkansas desegregates its state university.

The Supreme Court orders the admission of a black student to the University of Oklahoma School of Law, a white school, because there is no law school for Blacks.

1950

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:06:44 UTC

The Supreme Court rejects Texas' plan to create a new law school for black students rather than admit an African American to the state's whites-only law school.

The Supreme Court rules that learning in law school "cannot be effective in isolation from the individuals and institutions with which the law interacts." The decision stops short of overturning Plessy.

The Supreme Court holds that the policy of isolating a black student from his peers within a white law school is unconstitutional. (McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education)

Barbara Johns, a 16-year-old junior at Robert R. Moton High School in Farmville, Va., organizes and leads 450 students in an anti-school segregation strike.

1952

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:07:16 UTC

The Supreme Court hears oral arguments in Brown v. Board of Education. Thurgood Marshall, who will later become the first African American justice on the Supreme Court, is the lead counsel for the black school children.

1953

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:07:32 UTC

Earl Warren is appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court hears the second round of arguments in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

1954

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:07:46 UTC

In a unanimous opinion, the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education overturns Plessy and declares that separate schools are "inherently unequal." The Court delays deciding on how to implement the decision and asks for another round of arguments.

The Court rules that the federal government is under the same duty as the states and must desegregate the Washington, D.C., schools. (Bolling v. Sharpe)

1958

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:08:14 UTC

The Supreme Court rules that fear of social unrest or violence, whether real or constructed by those wishing to oppose integration, does not excuse state governments from complying with Brown. (Cooper v. Aaron)

1959

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:08:33 UTC

25,000 young people march in Washington, D.C., in support of integration.

Prince Edward County, Va., officials close their public schools rather than integrate them. White students attend private academies; black students do not head back to class until 1963, when the Ford Foundation funds private black schools. The Supreme Court orders the county to reopen its schools on a desegregated basis in 1964.

1960

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:08:45 UTC

In New Orleans, federal marshals shielded Ruby Bridges, Gail St. Etienne, Leona Tate and Tessie Prevost from angry crowds as they enrolled in school

1964

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:09:10 UTC

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is adopted. Title IV of the Act authorizes the federal government to file school desegregation cases. Title VI of the Act prohibits discrimination in programs and activities, including schools, receiving federal financial assistance.

The Rev. Bruce Klunder is killed protesting the construction of a new segregated school in Cleveland, Ohio.

Morgan v. Hennigan (1974)

arclemons1 — 2025-04-01 18:09:36 UTC

Morgan v. Hennigan was a landmark case that addressed racial segregation in Boston schools, reinforcing the idea that separate education is unequal. Though focused on race, the ruling helped shape special education laws, influencing to push for inclusive classrooms with students with disabilities. The case is significant because it reinforced equal protection for education, leading to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975) now known as IDEA. It demonstrated that judicial intervention can enforce educational equity, a principle later applied in special education cases. For educators, Morgan v. Hennigan highlights the importance of inclusion and advocacy. It shaped policies ensuring students with disabilities receive meaningful education alongside their peers. The case continues to impact special education law, strengthening students’ rights to a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE).

Brown v. Board

spolk19 — 2025-04-01 18:18:28 UTC

Brown v. Board of Education is one of the most historical Supreme Court Cases in US history. The case fundamentally alters the landscape of American education, particularly concerning racial segregation. This case was fighting for public schools across the country to desegregate and provide an education to every student regardless of race. Because of this decision, every student had an equal right to the education that they deserved. This ruling had a significant impact on the 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause, interpreting it as a guarantee of equal rights and opportunities for all citizens. For educators, it is important to understand that it shaped the legal framework of American education and reinforced the commitment to providing equal educational opportunities to all students, regardless of race or background. The legacy of Brown continues as an influence on equality and fairness in classrooms today.