To answer this question I will be using Borton's Relfective Model.

What?

My knowledge of different theories of the psychology of education have played a vital role in my practice and will continue to do so, in particular - the constructivist approach. The application of the different educational theories has important effect on teaching and learning methods alike. As we move into a more student-centered teaching world, the application of the theories of philosophers such as Vygotsky, Bruner and Rogers are more relevant than ever.

So what?

From the further knowledge I have gained of these theories in my studies, I aim to incorporate more and more of their application to my practice. I believe that the ethos of my final year placement school will allow me to explore the humanistic approach and engage learners intrinsic motivation. I will put more emphasis on learner-centered teaching and project-based learning. With that said, I recognise the importance of familiarity when carrying out peer and group work. Familiarity with a collaborative model will always deliver the best results. Which is why assigning roles, providing examples and/or rubrics are crucial. Repeating this process over and over can ensure that the conscientious student won't become frustrated.

Now what?

I would like to implement more discovery learning on my next professional placement. Given that I am doing my research project on gamification in the language classroom I am looking at ways to incorporate this principle into my practice. For example, I plan on setting a task with a Transition Year German group, in which they have to create and hold a table quiz on German food, festivals and culture, which acts as project based learning. I can assign students a group and topic to work with and give them roles (with clear responsibilities for each role) to assign to each member of the group, which they can decide amongst themselves. There will be time assigned for completing the project and dates given for each group to carry out their table quiz.

Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development states that development is dynamic process and even refers to it as being 'revolutionary' (Vygotsky, 1987) instead of linear, contradicting the theories of philosophers such as Piaget. In the second level language classroom, we must allow for dynamic learning and accept that there is no one way in which to learn a language, and that no two learners will be the same.

A Vygotskian theory that appears again and again is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978). In the context of a second language classroom, this means that students will acquire language through interaction with content just outside their current level of understanding, with help or input from a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), i.e. a teacher or peer.

Dynamic assessment is important here, as teachers we should focus on what learners are able to achieve with support rather than what they are capable of alone. Oral assessment with prompting from an MKO is a good example. This will also allow for social interaction, a vital aspect in development.

Naturally, social interaction plays a vital role in language acquisition, through meaningful conversations in the target language (interaction between teacher and learner or peer interaction) learners practice vocabulary, important syntax and practical application of a language. With cultural awareness being a key component of learning any language, peer role plays in the target language make good exercises.

Scaffolding allows the teacher to act as a facilitator in learning. The MKO provides the learners with temporary support until the learner is capable of performing tasks within their ZPD. Mediators "work to guide learners toward new ways of thinking and acting" and aim to "orient learners not merely to the task at hand but to future ones as well" (Poehner & Infante, 2017). Modelling how tasks can or should be carried out and providing learners with critical feedback will provide learners with the tools required to gain further agency in their learning.

Applying this theory to the classroom:

Teachers with knowledge of their learners' capabilities can pair students together for a role play in which they are buying train tickets in the target language and target language country. The MKO in the roleplay acts as the native speaker. Begin by activating prior knowledge, i.e. place names, modes of transport, necessary vocabulary and verbs. Model the roleplay at the beginning of the task, between teacher and a voluntary learner, include examples of prompting. Once you have done so, allow the learners to complete the task with their partner, while you monitor progress around the room and offer feedback where needed. This task allows for the MKO to reinforce their knowledge through teaching others and allows the learner to gain knowledge through social interaction.

Bruner, like Vygotsky, was a constructivist and believed that learners created new knowledge based on their existing understanding of a topic. I believe that his approach to teaching is relevant in today's society where no two learners are the same, and could be crucial in a reform of the second level schooling system in Ireland. We see Bruner's influence in the language classroom when we engage learners' prior knowledge and build on what is already there. Simple and well known formative and self assessment strategies such as 'Think, Pair, Share', 'KWLs' and '2 Stars and a Wish' are evidence of such practice.

Discovery Learning is one of Bruner's principles and as teachers, we can implement this in the second level classroom through project based learning. This is particularly useful in the language classroom, to include the cultural aspect of learning a language, which is on every language curriculum. While this theory is based on learner agency, the teacher still plays the important role of scaffolding and/or modelling any given task, "Bruner would likely not contend that all learning should be through discovery." (Jerome Bruner Theory of Cognitive Development & Constructivism, 2024). Providing learners with authentic materials is also necessary in providing a richer learning experience. Throughout my own practice I have found that learners engage better with such materials.

Bruner's Spiral Theory is highly applicable in the language classroom, especially on complex grammatical topics, such as Na Tuisil as Gaeilge and Die Fälle auf Deutsch. The theory is based around reinforcing the fundamental knowledge of any given topic and building on it consistently as learners' capability for understanding grows. Within this concept, we must allow for 'revision lessons' as learners 'will often struggle for a short time on the information that is re-introduced' (Joseph, n.d.). These 'revision lessons' may only need to consist of 5 minutes at the beginning of a lesson using a tool such as Mentimeter, to engage learners' prior knowledge.

We will begin to see and have seen more and more use of a humanistic approach in education. Psychologists like Rogers believed that the learner-centered approach is the best approach in education. Rather than focusing on what we as teachers can give to our students, this idea focuses on what learners are capable of achieving on their own. Rogers emphasizes the importance of teachers acting as facilitators for learning, instead of instructors. Rogers also argues that learners should be intrinsically motivated in order to achieve. His beliefs are in line with modern educational methods, "the purpose of humanistic education is to provide a foundation for personal growth and development so that learning will continue throughout life in a self-directed manner"(DeCarvalho, 1991).

I believe Rogers methods to be highly beneficial, however we may encounter difficulties when using a humanistic approach. Some learners thrive when able to work of their own esteem and others thrive within structure and routine. Potential shortfalls within this approach could be not catering to those who do require guidance and routine. Lack of structure could mean (for some students) that no learning would take place. This is where the teacher as a facilitator will come into play and we will be required to model and scaffold tasks for those who need it. With that said, we can also face difficulties if we have larger class sizes, teachers may not have the time to check in with each individual learner to ensure they are staying on task.

Contextual considerations come into play when taking a humanistic approach in the language classroom. According to Rogers "tasks of teachers include establishing a pleasant atmosphere in the classroom and thereby facilitating learning and acquisition of new ideas by reducing possible negative effects of external factors." (Instructional_design:Facilitation_theory [Learning Theories], n.d.). When we take into account the size of classes, learner motivation and learner backgrounds, there is only so much the teacher can do in order to facilitate learner-centered learning. For example, learners in DEIS schools in Ireland generally come from an underprivileged socio-economic background, the school itself may even have a lack of resources and/or teachers themselves. One teacher cannot be expected to reduce all negative external factors in these circumstances, which is where teachers can adopt a hybrid strategy of combining the humanistic approach with the ideas of Vygotsky and Bruner.

DeCarvalho, R. (1991). The humanistic paradigm in education. The Humanistic Psychologist, 19(1), 88-104.

Henry, P. M., Bates, R. M., Capuzzo, E., Capuzzo, M., Connelly, G., DiOrio, B., Sarke, F. H., & Souliotis, T. (1972). Learning Theory Constructs and Comparisons for Teacher Education. The Journal of Education, 155(1), 48–60. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42741844

Instructional_design:facilitation_theory [Learning Theories]. (n.d.). Retrieved 13 October 2024, from https://learning-theories.org/doku.php?id=instructional_design:facilitation_theory

Jerome Bruner Theory of Cognitive Development & Constructivism. (2024, February 1). https://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html

Joseph, O. O. (n.d.). BRUNER’S CURRICULUM MODEL.

Lantolf, J. (2000). Second language learning as a mediated process. Language Teaching. https://www.academia.edu/108616060/Second_language_learning_as_a_mediated_process

Poehner, M. E., & Infante, P. (2017). Mediated Development: A Vygotskian Approach to Transforming Second Language Learner Abilities. TESOL Quarterly, 51(2), 332–357. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44984758

Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and Speech. In R. W. Rieber, & A. S. Carton (Eds.), The Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky (Vol. 1), Problems of General Psychology (pp. 39-285). New York: Plenum Press. (Original Work Published 1934)

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.

When I reflected on my own practice, I recalled a time in which I gave out to female students over male students when a class began packing up their belongings before the German Language Assistant was finished with her section of the lesson. I did so because I believed that the girls in the class should have known better, therefore reinforcing the lack of standards/expectations there are for boys in education and reinforcing gender tropes of girls.

Due to my study of the sociology of education, I have gained insight into gender bias within schools, the digital divide and and other concepts such as the hidden curriculum. I also learned how educators can inadvertently reinforce these ideas and societal norms through their practice. We must take care to ensure we are not potentially harming students or reinforcing such stereotypes that could negatively affect a student's progress and opportunity.

As a teacher in training, I plan to combat such things by promoting inclusion in my lessons and in my classroom, to differentiate to meet the individual students' needs, to not reinforce gender stereotypes by keeping all classroom tasks equal, I will also continue to promote social interaction, especially in the language classroom as it is a key part in preparing students for the real world, let alone a part of the curriculum. While I will rely on technology to aid my practice, I will use it in moderation and make sure I am aware of the potential repercussions of misuse.

Due to the Feminisation of Education, we have seen a clear rise in the achievements of girls in education in the last century, a number of factors created this 'achievement gap', such as an increased emphasis on coursework which aligns with skills in which girls have traditionally excelled in and encouragement to study fields typically studied by men (Mitsos & Browne, 1998).

Many factors of the achievement gap crop up repeatedly in literature on the topic, such as a lack of male role models within academia, 'laddism' and absenteeism as a result of the so-called 'laddism'. Many young men will reduce their academic achievement in order to fit in, as caring about academics is seen as a 'feminine' trait. Boys are also more likely to misbehave, leading to them missing out on education, furthering the achievement gap (Giddens & Griffiths, 2006).

In the context of developing countries, many factors that have contributed to this achievement gap are the same as those that contributed to the gap in developed countries. One of the main factors being students' socioeconomic backgrounds. Boys are more likely to leave education early in order to help their parents, as traditionally, men are considered 'breadwinners', therefore "there is a higher expectation for men to contribute to household incomes rather than women." (Himaz & Aturupane, 2021) With that said, men in developing countries are still offered wider job opportunities.

Consequences

Schools across the globe will face more regular misbehaviour from male students if disengagement continues, which may further affect all students, impacting learning. Schools could invest in extracurricular activities and/or counselling services in order to maintain male engagement and prevent the hindering of others.

The digitalisation of schools offers a number of benefits, however there are many drawbacks to take into account. A hybrid approach between traditional schooling methods and using technology for learning would be optimal. In order to achieve this, we need to understand what the benefits and drawbacks are.

I will outline the benefits and drawbacks that I found laid out in a clear and concise form in an article by Allison Academy (2021).

Benefits

• Digitalisation can provide more interactive learning experiences

• Provides access to unlimited resources and information

• Teaches students digital literacy which is considered a '21st Century Skill'

• Metrics and digital data collection allow for better insight to student performance

• Reduced educational costs (controversial as technology costs are ever-rising)

Drawbacks

• There are many distractions with technology, in the classroom, teachers have to be a lot more aware of what their students are accessing

• Could reduce problem-solving skills, as students can rely on easy answers from online

• Reduced social interaction (a very important aspect of the language classroom)

• Costs of technology and maintaining technology

I find it difficult to say whether or not the benefits of technology outweigh the drawbacks, I do believe that technology has helped teachers when it comes to resources and planning, however it may hinder them in the classroom unless they have good behaviour management.

Technology has an unlimited amount of benefits for the classroom, as technology is constantly evolving and new resources are created at break-neck speed. Lack of knowledge on the correct usage and monitoring of technology in the classroom is where issues arise.

I love the idea of gamifying the language classroom and even chose to base my research project on how gamification affects second language acquisition. I chose this because I wanted to search for new ways of teaching Irish that would inspire young learners and motivate them intrinsically, something I learned a lot about while researching for my first portfolio entry.

All of my research on gamification reinforces the importance of technology in a modern language classroom, and to treat it as a vital resource to teacher practice. Especially considering that this generation and every generation of learners to come are 'digital natives' and have evolved in such a way that “they no longer resemble the young people who were designed to be taught by the traditional educational system” (Szabó & Kopinska, 2023 as mentioned in Prensky, 2001).

For example:

Creating Blookets and/or Kahoots based on topics you have just covered in class are great ways of ensuring that learners retain information. Putting reward systems in place also benefit learners as they want to win, games such a Kahoot already have this aspect built into them. Other resources such as Google Classroom or Microsoft Teams are great for ensuring every student has access to resources at home and in the classroom, making the teacher's job easier as they have to deal with less excuses surrounding access to homework, textbooks and any other resources.

Advantages and disadvantages of technology in education. (2021, July 8). Allison Academy. https://www.allisonacademy.com/students/education/technology-in-education/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-technology-in-education/

Himaz, R., & Aturupane, H. (2021). Why are boys falling behind? Explaining gender gaps in school attainment in Sri Lanka. https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/items/53e9c06a-ea1e-4ede-8ec2-d2321ce856a6/1/

Mitsos, E., & Browne, K. (1998). Gender differences in education: The underachievement of boys. Sociology Review, 8, 27–29.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 1. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120110424816

Szabó, F., & Kopinska, M. (2023). Gamification in foreign language teaching: A conceptual introduction. Hungarian Educational Research Journal. https://doi.org/10.1556/063.2023.00202

My study of the philosophy of education has allowed me to gain insight on the causes for the vast variety of learners. In today's society technology plays a vital role in our day to day life, some argue that those who grew up with access to technology are inherently different learners from generations prior and that “they no longer resemble the young people who were designed to be taught by the traditional educational system” (Szabó & Kopinska, 2023).

21st century skills and the acquisition of these skills are both self-taught and guided by the teacher. I will aim to provide the necessary tools and skills for pupils to be discerning digital learners, e.g. challenging the veracity of the content, is it a reliable source, is it fake news. These are all relevant questions that learners of every level have to get used to in order to navigate the ever changing landscape of 21st century knowledge acquisition. Digital technology provides ease of accessibility for all.

Behaviourism is brought into play when dealing with challenging behaviours and I can promote positive behaviours through careful selection of rewards, something that ties in well with my research project on Gamification, e.g. homework passes. A constructivist approach in my practice means I will focus on activation of prior-knowledge (KWLs) I will aim to build on what is already there, not from a presumption. Gamification can also allow for a more socially interactive classroom, allowing learners to gain knowledge from their More Knowledgeable Other, being myself or their classmates. I also aim to develop my own feedback and assessment skills, in order to cater to individual students' needs and capabilities.

This question is one I am sure has been answered countless times, and has probably never had two perfectly similar answers. Humans are a highly complex species and the fact this debate has gone on for centuries is proof. My belief is that human development and behaviours are caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, therefore I believe that inherently, both nature and nurture have equally important roles in human development.

'Nature' in this circumstance refers to our genetic code and the possible biological factors that influence an individual's human traits. Francis Galton, who coined the term 'Nature vs Nurture' believed our intelligence was derived from our genetics. He was an aristocrat "who believed that his genes selected his environment of wealth and education" (Wright, 2022). In modern society we recognise that it cannot be true that one's genes determine one's wealth and that wealth is an environmental factor, although more often than not, an inherited factor (Wright, 2022). Wealth creates access to resources and opportunities that otherwise wouldn't be accessible.

The 'nurture' side of the debate is probably strongest when it comes to mental health, with most believing our upbringing heavily influences developing mental illness. "This includes being exposed to environmental toxins, such as drugs or alcohol, while still in utero." (Cherry, n.d.). While environmental factors might play a stronger role, modern psychology has allowed us to understand how certain people can have a genetic predisposition to mental illnesses.

I believe that having an equal perspective on this debate allows us to understand human development on a deeper level.

Firstly it is important to look at the different possible definitions of 'education'. According to the Oxford dictionary, it can be viewed as "systematic instruction" or an "enlightening experience" (Oxford Languages and Google - English | Oxford Languages, n.d.). One might view education as purely academic, while others might view it as the obtaining of basic life skills. I believe both to be equally valid and equally as important.

I love the idea that "learning is a place where paradise can be created" (Greene, 2005). When I think of libraries I view them as vast receptacles of whatever knowledge you seek. The internet can be viewed in the same regard, perhaps a less safe place, full of infinite knowledge nonetheless. If we (the teachers) equip our students with the knowledge that anything they desire to know, they can find out if they look in the right places, we can create this so-called "paradise" within each individual learner.

Another important thing to note is that we must equip our students with the ability to critically analyse the material they consume, and to not take everything as 'fact'.

Fundamentally, I believe the purpose of education is, or at least should be, to enable individuals to think critically, to understand why they are learning, to understand other individuals and to equip people with the tools required to be a functioning member of society, or to have the capability to decide for themselves what contribution to society they are capable of. "As such, teachers should guide their students to practice good conduct in their relations with others."

(Shim, 2008).

"Teachers should lead their students to go beyond their fleeting sense experiences and to attain wisdom through a reasoned understanding of causes." (Shim, 2008) I completely agree with this statement, education is not simply knowledge transfer but an ability to think critically. When I think of my own experiences as a student learning German, I was mostly rote learning and despite the curriculum supposedly teaching to an A2/B1 level, I couldn't have casual conversation auf Deutsch. I will use the target language as much as possible, in order to expose my students to the language in real-life situations.

I want to promote the advance from narrative teaching which "mirrors the oppressive conditions in the society" (Shim, 2008). I wish to be able to replicate the conditions which Freire describes for education, where l will be able to approach teaching with my students. As someone who comes from a family of neurodiverse people, I hope to be able to apply what I have learned from them to my practice, and to facilitate for all types of learners and equip them with valuable skills.

In Freitas' study on converging Behaviorism and Constructivism in the classroom she states that "the study proved that individual academic and social growth could be facilitated through meaningful collaboration between students and adults in a classroom setting." (Freitas, 2003). This approach would align with my values, perhaps I won't achieve it in my first few years as an NQT, however I hope to eventually develop strategies that will enable me to do so. Ultimately, my philosophy towards teaching will revolve around nurturing the individual and playing to their strengths by providing a wide range of experiences in order to create opportunities students might not have access to without support.

Cherry, K. (n.d.). What to Know About Nature vs. Nurture. Verywell Mind. Retrieved 24 December 2024, from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-nature-versus-nurture-2795392

Freitas, L. M. (2003). Converging behaviorist and constructivist theories in classroom settings. https://doi.org/10.25669/XMS8-NB3A

Greene, C. (2005). Education as the Practice of Freedom. Educational Horizons, 84(1), 50–53. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42923653

Oxford Languages and Google—English | Oxford Languages. (n.d.). Retrieved 15 December 2024, from https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/

Shim, S. H. (2008). A philosophical investigation of the role of teachers: A synthesis of Plato, Confucius, Buber, and Freire. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(3), 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.09.014

Szabó, F., & Kopinska, M. (2023). Gamification in foreign language teaching: A conceptual introduction. Hungarian Educational Research Journal. https://doi.org/10.1556/063.2023.00202

Wright, R. O. (2022). Nature versus nurture—On the origins of a specious argument. Exposome, 2(1), osac005. https://doi.org/10.1093/exposome/osac005

Zealand, M. of E., New. (2016, June 20). Universal Design for Learning. Inclusive Education. https://inclusive.tki.org.nz/guides/universal-design-for-learning/