https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc Made with whimsy en-us 2021-12-02 19:43:32 UTC 2023-01-26 17:15:27 UTC hello@padlet.com teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1925985271 2021-12-02 19:48:50 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1925985271 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1925985524 2021-12-02 19:48:58 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1925985524 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1925985976 2021-12-02 19:49:13 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1925985976 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926222813 - Biopsy: remove tissue from where you want to analyze
- Slicing: once tissue is remove slice into small sections
- Fixative: place fixative onto tissue so they will bind to animo acid groups on proteins so tissue doesn't degrade 
- Freeze: freeze is resin
- Slicing: slice smaller sections to view in electromicroscope]]> 2021-12-02 23:04:10 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926222813 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926223082 2021-12-02 23:04:29 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926223082 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926224626 Anaplastic Cells: 
- used to describe cancer cells that divide rapidly and no longer resemble normal cells
- If ratio to nucleus and cytoplasm ratio is 1:1 because increases mitotic activity

Hyperplasia: 
- Increase number of cells but cells are still relatively/appear normal

Adenoma:
- When there is an epithelial tumor with glandular organisation. 
- Glandular tissue: anything that is hollow/glands
- Benign tumors

Early Carcinoma:
- Carcinoma: most common type of malignant cancer coming from epithelial cells
- Can also be called insito --> not

Late Carcinoma:
- Later stage carcinoma
- Can be called invasive --> expanded and invaded surrounding regions
- Can go into lymph nodes and blood stream, etc]]> 2021-12-02 23:06:11 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926224626 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926225153 - Epithelial Cells: cell that lines a surface of your body. Found on skin, organs, etc. 
- Functions:

- Basement Membrane: Thin sheet which is type of extracellular matrix which provides cell and tissue support
- Act as place for complex signalling
- Between epithelial cells and connective tissue
- Has certain chemical structure: mostly glycoproteins, collagen
- Is made up of 2 layers: basal lamina and reticular lamina

- Myoepithelium: Typically found in glandal epithelium above basementment membrane. Cells that can be found in salivary glands, sweat glands, mamory glands, etc. 
-Smooth muscle properties
-Helps for lactation

- Intralobular stroma: Contains fibroblasts and scattered inflammatory cells ]]> 2021-12-02 23:06:54 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926225153 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926225528 2021-12-02 23:07:25 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926225528 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926225874 Benign tumor: stays inside basal lamina
Malignant tumor: breaks basal lamina and becomes invasive
Basal lamina refers to a layer of basement membrane (not cells just layer of fibers)


]]> 2021-12-02 23:07:50 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926225874 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926226380 2021-12-02 23:08:25 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926226380 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227386 Biomarker: 
- Molecule found in blood/any bodily fluid that shows a normal or abnormal process to help measure/observe progress of a disease

Can organelles be used as biomarkers?:
- Yes because any biological molecule indicating abnormality
- E.g. if a nucleus is abnormally large that gives indication that something is wrong

In immunohistochemistry: 
- The biomarkers are used to show how many/where of a receptor there are

Histologic:
- Abnormal alterations in cells and tissues
- Used in grading stages of cancer

Molecular:
- Biophysical properties 
- E.g. blood glucose

Radiographic:
- Found through imaging studies
- Can use lead wire because it lights up in radiograph so you can see exactly what you marked
- E.g. bone mineral density 

Physiologic:
- Certain physiological process
- E.g.l blood pressure




]]> 2021-12-02 23:09:36 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227386 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227590 H&E Staining:
- Uses 2 dyes

Hematoxylin:
- Basic dye which binds to acidic structure with purple/blue structure
- DNA, RNA, ribosomes

Eosin:
- Acidic dye used to dye basic structures red/pink
- Mainly binds to proteins within cytoplasm]]> 2021-12-02 23:09:50 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227590 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227688 Steps:
1) Remove wax:
- After preparing the slides, elements are infiltrated with and surrounded by paffix wax that is hydrophobic
-Wax removed by hydrocarbon solvent (xylene)

2) Hydrate section
- Tissue slide is passed through alcohol to remove xylene solvent and rinsed in water

3) Apply hematoxylin nuclear stain:
- Slide stained with hematoxylin (contains dye of hermatein and binding agent)
- This will stain nuclei and other nuclear elements a purple color

4) Complete nuclear staining by "bluing":
-Sample is rinsed and 'blued' by weakly alkaline solution
-This will make hematoxylin a dark blue

5) Remove excess background stains
- Removal of nonspecific stains
- Help make specific stains clearer and increases contrast between 
- Done with weak alcohol with water again

6) Apply eosin counterstain:
- Stain section with eosin
- Will make nonnuclear elements pink

7) Rinse, dehydrate, clear, & mount:
-Samples passed through alcohol then rinsed with xylene to make tissue transparent
-Thin layer of polystyrene mountain applied]]> 2021-12-02 23:09:55 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227688 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227754 Immunohistochemistry:
- Use of antibodies to visual tissues and cells and their functioning
- Put markers on antibodies to signal where a protein/structure is on cell

ER & PR:
- Negative: no biomarker or antibody
- Positive: there is biomarker or antibody
- ER: estrogen receptor // PR: progesterone receptor
- ER and PR are biomarkers
- ER positive they require estrogen for cancer cells to keep growing 
- PR positive means they require progesterone for cancer cells to keep growing

- Patient with malignant breast tumor (either ER or PR):
- What does this mean reegarding treatment?
- Start with control of hormonal releases (blocking) to prevent tumor growing


Relating to breast cancer:
- Can see if there is a specific antigen expressed in tissues]]> 2021-12-02 23:09:59 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227754 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227923 Steps:

1) Tissue is fixed with certain chemical (formaldehyde) which ensures structural integrity of the cell

2) Cells are penetrated with Triton X allowing antibodies to bind with tissues

3) Primary antibodies against desired protein are added and secondary proteins with enzymes (like HRP) bind to the primary antibody
- The enzyme is conjugated so it is attached

4) Secondary enzymes target certain substrate and catalyze oxidation which results in colorful staining of the area

5) Counterstain added to tissue (like hematoxylin) which makes contrast with what was stained in immunohistochemitry steps with what was not stained

ER/PR:
- We have a breast biopsy,
- First antibody binds to ER or PR receptor (that is the antigen here)





]]> 2021-12-02 23:10:04 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227923 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227993 Fluorescence Microscopy:
- Use of fluorescent dyes which absorb light and project it at a different wavelength to detect certain proteins/structure in tissues
- Used fluorescent microscope

Filters:

]]> 2021-12-02 23:10:08 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926227993 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926228039 Figure A: electrons when they absorb energy they jump. When they fall back to original energy state they emit light

Figure B: After all light sources go in , the first barrier only allows certain wavelength of light to go through (450-490nm). Then it is deflected by beam-splitting mirror. Will excite the sample with fluorescent probes. When object is excited the emitted light will go to second barrier filter which will cut out unwanted fluorescent signals which go to microscope eyepiece to be seen (these are between 520-560nm). 

]]> 2021-12-02 23:10:12 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926228039 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926229609 2021-12-02 23:12:02 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926229609 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926230812 2021-12-02 23:13:25 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926230812 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926231139 2021-12-02 23:13:43 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926231139 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926232341 2021-12-02 23:15:00 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926232341 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926232873 2021-12-02 23:15:35 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926232873 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926233452 2021-12-02 23:16:15 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1926233452 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1927115597 Histology: branch of biology which studies microscopic anatomy of biological tissues]]> 2021-12-03 11:07:34 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1927115597 teresaniederlander https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1927198205 -Larger nucleus
- Cytoplasm to nucleus ratio: less cytoplasm more nucleus
-Hyperchromatic nuclei: Nucleoli would be more prominent
- Morphism: normal cells have shape related/similar to one another vs anaplastic cells have morphism (sizes of nucleus and cell shape are very irregular)
- Abnormal tissue architecture: E.g. blocking the lumen
- Giant cells: When cells are very close to each other (because of rapid expansion) they can form giant cells by combining. So you have 1 giant cell with multiple nuclei

]]> 2021-12-03 12:18:05 UTC https://padlet.com/teresaniederlander/4iy9zhppnf0xy1wc/wish/1927198205