·      Stalin was convinced he couldn’t count on the army to follow his policies

·      Army leaders were tough and difficult to intimidate

·      Marshall Tukhachevsky was a the hero of the of the Civil War, but during his period he had come into conflict with Stalin. Stalin claimed that the army was plotting to overthrow him. Tukhachevsky and other generals had confessions beaten out of them (Tukhachevsky’s written confession actually had blood stains on it) and were then executed.

·      NKVD then worked its way through the rest of the armed forces to devastating effects.

·      That Stalin should risk wiping out his best commanders when the prospect of war loomed is a powerful indication of how far the terror had gone

·      The reasons for arrest were arbitrary; criticising Stalin, telling a joke about him or being a friend of someone who was arrested. Arrests were then followed by interrogation in which the victims were urged to confess their opposition to Stalin and involvement with counter-revolutionary groups

Impact: (p347)

May 1937, Stalin had launched a vast purge of high-ranking Red Army officers, beginning with Marshal Tukhachevsky. In all, 35 000 officers were arrested. The purges had a traumatic effect on the army:

·      Trained leaders were lost at a time when the Red Army was expanding rapidly

·      Political control of the military was strengthened with political officers brought back to oversee military commanders. This stifled initiative and independence of action. Commanders waited passively for decisions from above which, especially in the early days of war, often came too late to make a positive difference to the situation on the ground. Rigid conformity led to frontal assaults that incurred enormous losses of men and equipment.

·      The purges made foreign governments - potential allies as well as the Germans - assume that the Red Army was a broken shell

·      The military – industrial complex was purged too. This led to poor decision making on technical matters so that when war began, good quality, modern tanks and aircraft were not yet fully in mass production.

the effect of purges on personnel may have been exaggerated. Not all the executed Red Army commanders were proven military leaders in a mechanised war an many able middle-level commanders survived. Nevertheless, the overall impact of the beginning of the war was very detrimental to Soviet armed forces.

The Significance of the loss of Tukhachevsky:

Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky was the leading military thinker in the Soviet Union. In 1928 in a military review, The Future War, he put forward the idea of a grand offensive involving thousands of tanks, armoured with vehicles and aircraft advancing at great speed to deliver a knockout blow –‘deep operations.’ He foresaw that this highly mechanised war would require the mobilisation of economic resources on a huge scale which meant that the build-up of heavy industry was essential. ‘It will be a war which will embrace multi-million strong masses and the majority of the population of the combatant nations. The frontiers between the front and the rear will be erased more and more.’

He was a central figure in the military collaboration with Germany in the 1920s and early 1930s thought, whereas many of the Germans were involved in the collaboration played leading parts of the war, he and most Soviet military leaders participating were wiped out by the purges. Fortunately, his ideas of ‘deep operations’ were put into practise effectively from mid-1943 onwards.  

• This was the closest Stalin came to admitting responsibility for the initial losses

• Stalin was convinced that the Germans would not attack the USSR until Britain was defeated

• Stain believed that war in Germany was inevitable - but thought the Soviet Union would not be ready to fight until 1942

• The poor performance of the Red Army in the war against Finland reinforced his view that the Soviet Union was not prepared for war, thus his priorities were to avoid war against Germany and build his army up

• he received 80 warnings of German intentions to invade/build up of troops in the 8 months preceding the invasion which he ignored

• The Red Army and air force was in transition, with Stalin ordering the abandonment of old defensive lines in favour of new positions on the new frontier, meaning that by the beginning of Operation Barbarossa the Russians had little equipment such as heavy guns, radio equipment or mine fields.

• Stalin also underestimated the scale of a potential attack, meaning the resulting attack lead to massive losses of men, territory and industrial/agricultural capacity.

Quotes:

• "Lenin left us a great legacy, but we, his heirs, have f****d it up," Stalin admitted to a small group of his closest associates 6 days after the German invasion

“All those years we had suffered from a lack of friendship and the words ‘my friends’ moved us to tears” - Stalin in that same speech

“The Russian people are fighting for their homeland not for us” - still that same speech by Stalin (this was his first speech to the Russian people since the German invasion)

The historian Volkogonoc called Stalin's address to the soldiers a 'bold and far-sighted move, reflecting the sure hand with which Stalin influenced public opinion and guided the people's mental state, and this at a time when many were doubtful about the outcome of the war'.

'The whole world is looking at you as the force capable of destroying the plundering horde of the German invaders. The enslaved peoples of Europe ... look to you as their liberators.'

Despite the approaching German army - less than 50 miles from Moscow - Stalin held a parade within the centre of the city to celebrate the anniversary of the Bolshevik rise to power, which had a large effect upon the distraught masses, some of whom had began looting the city. Despite being against the advice of the Generals, this reflected Stalin's capacity as a rallying force within the war.

He was undoubtedly a leader who got things done and could successfully progress towards a final goal, however this did not come without its consequence and although he held the Union together the casualties and consequences were devastating. This can largely be attributed to his stubborn ruthlessness.

EXAMPLES:

.Order 227, Issued by Stalin, known for its motto, "Not a step back!", an order which discouraged desertion, and encouraged persistence and fighting back German advances, despite the millions of losses Russia had already taken.

.Stalin vigorously resisted against strategic withdrawals, despite the red army being completely outnumbered by the German Army, despite multiple armies being captured or killed at once.

.Preparations for WW2 under the leadership of Stalin were viewed as incompetent and unprepared, exposed by German advances, as well as the overly ambitious offensive attempts by the Red Army, under the Orders of Stalin, resulting in massive losses and captures.

.Stalin and the Red Army were rewarded with occasional wins despite the initial shock of Operation Barbarossa, with counter-offensives lead by Stalin, pushing back the German Army up to hundreds of kilometres at a Time

.Stalin's method of leadership as one of his roles within the second world war consisted of headstrong orders and commands, with minimal consideration of how the losses and risks these precarious, hazardous commands would impact Russia within a war economy. This was balanced out by a propaganda fuelled adoration of the motherland, and the people of Russia turning to their leader for support and overseeing, despite how minimally Stalin appeared to care for the millions of casualties that resulted from his carelessness in strategies within the war, simply covering up this frantic behaviour with removing any options for individuals to dessert or flee.

QUOTES

“Stalin the War Leader.. was popular, and there can be no doubt that he was the one who held the Soviet Union together… I do not think anyone else could have done it… I’d like to emphasise my great admiration for Stalin the national leader in an emergency - one of those historical occasions when one man made such a difference. This in no sense minimises my revulsion against his cruelties; but I have to give you the constructive side as well as the other” - Averell Harriman, US Ambassador in Moscow, 1982

“[Stalin’s] highly amateurish and incompetent military leadership, especially during the first year and a half of the war, manifested itself in catastrophic losses in terms of material and manpower. But hte Soviet people were able to withstand this not because of Stalin’s genius, but in spite of it. As supreme commander of the armed forces, stalin led them to victory, but at the cost of unimaginable losses” D. Volkogonov, 1997

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DRprt2vHis

Stalin grew increasingly paranoid of his generals and ramped up purges within the Communist party and Army of anyone who might oppose him. He used the NKVD to monitor, interrogate, and imprison generals on fabricated charges of espionage or conspiracy.Ninety three of the 139 Central Committee members were killed and 81 of the 103 generals and admirals are executed including three of the five marshals of the Soviet Union.

Stalin came to rely increasingly on three men: Vasilevsky Chief of the general staff; Antonnov his deputy and Zhukov, the hero of Leningrad and Moscow.

Stalin maintained strict control over military operations although some officers who had been imprisoned were released and reinstated to contribute to the war effort.

Stalin had been involved in major campaigns being a member of the politburo during the Civil War, but was still seen as an amateur when it came to strategic and operational matters.

He exercised greater control over the country's war effort than any other national leader and was involved in the detailed planning and direction of military operations.

Relations between Stalin and his generals led to a better balance between them, leading to overall better and strategically sound plans, such as the encirclement of the German 6th Army at Stalingrad, and the rejection of Stalins "pre-emptive" strikes by Zhukov, choosing to dig in and defend Kursk.

Nikita Khrushchev - "Stalin thought Zhukov was going to overthrow him. He didn't trust anyone, and Zhukov was no exception."

Georgy Zhukov 

   - Role: Marshal of the Soviet Union 

   - Key Events: 

     - Battle of Moscow (October 1941 - January 1942): Defended the capital against German advances. 

     - Battle of Stalingrad (July 1942 - February 1943): Played a strategic role in the encirclement and destruction of German forces. 

     - Battle of Kursk (July 1943): Repelled the German offensive in the largest tank battle in history. 

     - Battle of Berlin (April - May 1945): Commanded the Soviet offensive that captured Berlin.

Konstantin Rokossovsky 

   - Role: Marshal of the Soviet Union 

   - Key Events: 

     - Battle of Stalingrad (July 1942 - February 1943): Commanded the Soviet forces and played a pivotal role in the defeat of the German 6th Army. 

     - Battle of Kursk (July 1943): Led the Central Front and repelled the German offensive. 

     - Operation Bagration (June - August 1944): Led Soviet forces that liberated Belarus.

Aleksandr Vasilevsky 

   - Role: Chief of the General Staff and Marshal of the Soviet Union 

   - Key Events: 

     - Defense of Stalingrad (July 1942 - February 1943): Planned and coordinated the encirclement of the German 6th Army. 

     - Operation Bagration (June - August 1944): Coordinated the Soviet efforts to liberate Belarus. 

     - Soviet invasion of Manchuria (August 1945): Commanded forces against Japan, leading to their defeat.

Ivan Konev 

   - Role: Marshal of the Soviet Union 

   - Key Events: 

     - Battle of Kursk (July 1943): Repelled German attacks during this critical battle. 

     - Vistula-Oder Offensive (January - February 1945): Spearheaded the Soviet advance into Eastern Europe. 

     - Battle of Berlin (April - May 1945): Commanded the 1st Ukrainian Front during the capture of Berlin.

Vasily Chuikov 

   - Role: Commander of the 62nd Army 

   - Key Events: 

     - Battle of Stalingrad (July 1942 - February 1943): Held the 62nd Army against German advances. 

     - Vistula-Oder Offensive (January - February 1945): Advanced Soviet forces into Poland. 

     - Battle of Berlin (April - May 1945): Contributed to the final victory over Nazi Germany.

Rodion Malinovsky 

   - Role: Commander of the 2nd Ukrainian Front 

   - Key Events: 

     - Soviet advances into Romania and Hungary (1944): Helped overthrow Axis-aligned governments. 

     - Siege of Budapest (December 1944 - February 1945): Captured the city after a fierce battle. 

     - Vienna Offensive (April 1945): Liberated Austria from Nazi control.

Leonid Govorov 

   - Role: Commander of the Leningrad Front 

   - Key Events: 

     - Siege of Leningrad (September 1941 - January 1944): Defended the city against German forces. 

     - Lifting of the Siege (January 1944): Helped break the German blockade. 

     - Baltic Offensive (September - November 1944): Liberated the Baltic states from Nazi occupation.

These generals exemplified determination and strategy, leading to the Soviet Union's victory on the Eastern Front.

• In 1941-1942 , his inflexible, standfast mentality prevented tactical withdrawals that would have avoided the catastrophic losses sustained when Kiev was encircled (September 1941, half a million men are killed).

• General Pavlov who had tried to hold the front line in the first few weeks of the war, was arrested and accused of involvement in anti-Soviet conspiracy and tortured to death. Accused of ‘cowardice, panic mongering, criminal negligence and unauthorised retreats’.

• He issues two different orders.

• Order 270 16 August 1941: Issued after the surrender of 100,000 encircled men at Uman in Northwest Ukraine. They were considered deserters and their families liable to arrest. The families of Red army men were deprived of state entitlements and assistance. If you surrender you are a traitor to the country and are liable to be execute.

• Order 227 28 July 1942: Issued at the low point of the war after Rostov had fallen with barely a fight and when army discipline broke down. ‘Not a step Back’! He orderd that the soviets musn’t be defeated but defend soviet territory to the utmost. If they were in a losing position Stalin ordered they cannot retreat. He had machine guns aimed at his own troops so they don't surrender

Part 2

Quotes:

• Alexander Samsonov, a leading Soviet historian concerned with WWII, and a harsh critic of Stalin's leadership wrote, ''The order [227], of course, was extremely severe, but necessary at that terrible moment.''

• He quoted an ordinary soldier's account of his reaction: ''All my life I will remember what Stalin's order meant... The chief thing was that they had the courage to tell people the whole and bitter truth about the abyss to whose edge we had slid.''

  
  

Information:

• Stalin later admitted that the Soviets were in a desperate situation having lost 70 million people and vast recourses of grain and materials in the first month of the war and he needed to stop further retreats.

• Stalin was also psychologically preparing the troops to make final stand at Stalingrad and elsewhere.

• The sanctions against 'waverers' were not only to encourage discipline but also bolster those who were inclined to heroism.

• Further at the Battle of Stalingrad an est 13,500 Soviet troops were shot in the span of only a few weeks.

• It is said though that at less desperate times however the order was ignored. Yet overall, reports suggest that the order did indeed have a positive impact, though often exaggerated.

• It was aimed at primary officers and political commissars and applied only to unauthorised retreats. In 1942 blocking detachments were abolished but the NKVD continued to carry out the same role.

  
  

NKVD Activities:

On the Don and Stalingrad front from 1st August - 15th October 1942.

• More than 40,000 people detained

• 900 arrested

• 700 shot

• 1300 sent to penal battalion

• remainder returned to their units