Extended Definition: "When fluent readers read silently, they recognize words automatically. They group words quickly to help them gain meaning from what they read. Fluent readers read aloud effortlessly and with expression. Their reading sounds natural, as if they are speaking.

Readers who have not yet developed fluency read slowly, word by word. Their oral reading is choppy" (Reading Rockets, 2023a).

In the attached video, watch a student in K-3 demonstrate fluency.

Does your kindergartner read smoothly like this? - Milestones from GreatSchools. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. https://youtu.be/_jLZPhXsAnA

Reading Rockets. (2023a). Basics: Fluency. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/fluency

To develop fluency, it primarily takes two things: time and practice (Reading 101 for Parents: Fluency | Reading Rockets, n.d.).

If students are struggling with fluency and are expressing concerns, here are a few ways they can help themselves:

• "Track the words with your finger as a parent or teacher reads a passage aloud. Then you read it.

• Have a parent or teacher read aloud to you. Then, match your voice to theirs.

• Read your favorite books and poems over and over again. Practice getting smoother and reading with expression" (Target the Problem: Fluency | Reading Rockets, n.d.).

Reading 101 for Parents: Fluency | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/literacy-home/reading-101-guide-parents/reading-basics/fluency

Target the Problem: Fluency | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/helping-all-readers/why-some-kids-struggle/target-problem/fluency

Especially for non-native English speakers, the expectation in the classroom may be fluency, but for some students, this is simply not the case yet. Through patient teaching, regular comprehension checks, and a slower pace, a teacher can make a difference in the classroom and help a student develop fluency at their own pace.

Woolfolk, A. & Usher, E. (2023). Educational Psychology: Active learning edition (15th ed.). Pearson.

An example of how fluency appears in the English classroom is through an out-loud reading exercise. For the rest of the class to understand what the reader is saying, they must be able to read with fluency. This could look like a student reading with accuracy, pronouncing words correctly, and at a reasonable pace.

Lavery, C. (n.d.). Fluency activities for lower levels. TeachingEnglish. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/teaching-resources/teaching-secondary/activities/pre-intermediate-a2/fluency-activities-lower

Extended Definition: "The goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn the alphabetic principle — the idea that letters represent the sounds of spoken language — and that there is an organized, logical, and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken sounds. Decoding is when we use letter-sound relationships to translate a printed word into speech. It’s sometimes called “sounding out” a printed word" (Reading Rockets, 2023).

Reading Rockets. (2023). Basics: Phonics and decoding | Reading Rockets. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/phonics-and-decoding

There are two primary ways to teach a child phonics:

"Systematic: the letter-sound relationship is taught in an organized and logical sequence

Explicit: the instruction provides teachers with precise directions for teaching letter-sound relationships" (Reading Rockets, 2023).

In the attached video, watch an active phonics lesson with a real child to learn how to apply phonics in your classroom.

Mastering Short Vowels and Reading Whole Words with Calista, First Grader. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. https://youtu.be/kJMsWoVeBjk

Reading Rockets. (2023). Basics: Phonics and decoding | Reading Rockets. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/phonics-and-decoding

This could look like a student reading a new word for the first time in a book in front of the class. By utilizing phonics, that student could then sound out the word and pronounce it correctly for their peers. With a proper knowledge of phonics, a student should be able to pronounce any new word they come across and are unfamiliar with, and this happens frequently within the English classroom as new material is presented as the year progresses.

Sedita, J. (2024, May 7). Phonics Instruction for English Learners. Keys to Literacy. https://keystoliteracy.com/blog/phonics-instruction-for-english-learners/

A teacher, when helping these students understand phonics, can encourage them by presenting the following information: "For students with native language literacy skills, help them understand that the process of sounding out words is the same across languages" (Sedita, 2024).

This can help students who are native Spanish speakers, for example, as letters make similar or the same sounds in their native language.

Sedita, J. (2024, May 7). Phonics Instruction for English Learners. Keys to Literacy. https://keystoliteracy.com/blog/phonics-instruction-for-english-learners/

• "Assess the student to make sure that word decoding or word recognition is not the source of the difficulty (if decoding is the source of the problem, decoding will need to be addressed in addition to reading speed and phrasing).

• Give the student independent level texts that he or she can practice again and again. Time the student and calculate words-correct-per-minute regularly. The student can chart his or her own improvement.

• Ask the student to match his or her voice to yours when reading aloud or to a tape recorded reading" (Target the Problem: Fluency | Reading Rockets, n.d.).

By applying these methods, over time, a student should be able to read with fluency.

Target the Problem: Fluency | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/helping-all-readers/why-some-kids-struggle/target-problem/fluency

Extended Definition: "Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand or connect to what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful and active, and have the skills to absorb what they read, analyze it, make sense of it, and make it their own" (Reading Rockets, 2024).

Reading Rockets. (2024). Basics: Reading Comprehension | Reading Rockets. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/reading-comprehension

• Do they Draw on prior knowledge?

• Do they Pay attention to sentences and text cohesion?

• Do they Self-monitor?

• Do they Form mental images?

• Can they Summarize and retell?

• Do they Think about text structure?

Watch the video above for practical ways a teacher can help encourage reading comprehension in their classroom. A key to mastering comprehension is understanding that skilled readers are active (Comprehension: Introduction | Reading Rockets, n.d.). Encourage your students to think about what they read while they read.

Comprehension: Introduction | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-101-learning-modules/course-modules/comprehension

Engaging Nonfiction Readers. (2011, May 31). Engaging Nonfiction Readers. YouTube. https://youtu.be/6Yi5UfDeY1k

For example, comprehension would be useful in an English class when there is an open-ended discussion about the morality of a specific character or the deeper meaning behind a passage of text.

According to Reading Rockets, "[c]omprehension is the whole point of reading," so without it, students will miss the whole point of English class and why people read literature (Comprehension: Introduction | Reading Rockets, n.d.).

Comprehension: Introduction | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-101-learning-modules/course-modules/comprehension

It's a simple fix to a diverse and complex issue, but simply having patience with a student while they learn to comprehend what they read will reduce frustration and allow the student to have more room to grow, no matter who they are.

Target the Problem: Comprehension | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/helping-all-readers/why-some-kids-struggle/target-problem/comprehension

The extended definition by Reading Rocket is as follows: "Phonological awareness is made up of a group of skills. Examples include being able to identify words that rhyme, counting the number of syllables in a name, recognizing alliteration, segmenting a sentence into words, and identifying the syllables in a word. The most sophisticated — and last to develop — is called phonemic awareness" (Reading Rockets, 2023).

Reading Rockets. (2023). Basics: Phonological and Phonemic Awareness | Reading Rockets. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/phonological-and-phonemic-awareness

Students can do these activities, including:

"recognizing which words in a set of words begin with the same sound

(“Bell, bike, and boy all have /b/ at the beginning.”)"

"isolating and saying the first or last sound in a word

(“The beginning sound of dog is /d/.” “The ending sound of sit is /t/.”)"

"combining, or blending the separate sounds in a word to say the word

(“/m/, /a/, /p/ – map.”)"

"breaking, or segmenting a word into its separate sounds

(“up – /u/, /p/.”)" (Reading Rockets, 2023).

Reading Rockets. (2023). Basics: Phonological and Phonemic Awareness | Reading Rockets. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/phonological-and-phonemic-awareness

In the English classroom, a teacher could play fun yet educational phonetic games to increase phonetic comprehension, such as a marching game that has students step after hearing each syllable. With this, a student can link how individual sounds make up words (Understood, 2019).

Understood. (2019). What Is Phonological Awareness? In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0G6teawxls

The International Dyslexia Association states that "[i]n U.S. schools, approximately 400 different languages other than English are spoken; Spanish is the most common. The second language learner must become consciously aware of the phonemes in English, including any English speech sounds that are not in the student’s native language" (Building Phoneme Awareness: Know What Matters - International Dyslexia Association, 2022).

Accounting for all speech sounds depending on the student's native language helps them sound out words that may be foreign to them. With patience and care, a student can accurately understand how each sound makes up a word.

Building Phoneme Awareness: Know What Matters - International Dyslexia Association. (2022, December 8). Dyslexiaida.org. https://dyslexiaida.org/building-phoneme-awareness-know-what-matters/

Oral Language is defined by Reading Rockets as the following: "Oral language encompasses both speaking and listening. Oral language skills include learning how spoken words sound, what words and sentences mean, and how to communicate ideas. Nurturing oral language skills provides a strong foundation for learning to read" (Reading Rockets).

Reading Rockets. (2024). Basics: Oral Language | Reading Rockets. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/oral-language

Digital storytelling - "create[s] original narrative and informational pieces. The Storybird app provides access to thousands of illustrations and photographs to illustrate original pieces of writing. These are best when completed collaboratively in order to create lots of opportunities for students to engage in meaningful discussion with one another" (Reading Rockets). Students can create their own stories instead of reading from others.

Presentations - "students research a topic and then share their findings with their peers, either in a small group or a large group" (Reading Rockets). By sharing their opinions and findings, students can develop oral language and further communication skills.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2014). Speaking and Listening in Content Area Learning. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/comprehension/articles/speaking-and-listening-content-area-learning

According to Reading Rockets, oral language is a must for students desirous to engage with English material and other types of material: "If we want to ensure that students read increasingly complex informational texts, it seems logical that students should be talking during their content area learning" (Fisher, D., & Frey, N., 2014). As a teacher, I can encourage my students to grapple with the material verbally and implement discussion-based activities such as a seminar into my lesson plan. Within these discussions, my students can openly discuss their thoughts and feelings about a book we might be reading or an article I found that relates to our class readings. Not all students can verbally communicate, however, such as someone with a speech defect or disability, so it would be important to consider all students' needs in the classroom before engaging in an activity.

According to the video, oral language development starts early in childhood and extends to the classroom later on. All it takes is a little effort and care, and a student can communicate effectively (Reading Rockets)!

Reading Rockets. (2014). Bringing up baby. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hj_qOqOuZd8

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2014). Speaking and Listening in Content Area Learning. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/comprehension/articles/speaking-and-listening-content-area-learning

Considering Oral Language, the language a teacher utilizes is important within their classrooms. For example, a teacher should utilize bias-free language and asset-based language to encourage their students and bring out the best of their abilities instead of focusing on their struggles or inabilities (Bias-Free Language, 2020). Oral language is not specific to English speakers, either, as ESL students may benefit from hearing a lesson in their native language through translation software. A teacher would be able to provide this assistance technology after addressing the student's needs and seeing if the student would want this technology.

In the English classroom, having text-to-speech assistance technology could help a student with dyslexia, for example, or speech-to-text software could be useful for a student with dysgraphia. Each student could have a different need, but it is up to the teacher to address this need and communicate properly with them, utilizing appropriate and inclusive speech, to help in whatever way they can.

Bias-Free Language. (2020). Bias-Free Language. Https://Apastyle.apa.org. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language

Extended Definition: "Vocabulary plays a fundamental role in the reading process and is critical to reading comprehension. Children learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and written language. Other words are learned through carefully designed instruction" (Reading Rockets, 2024).

According to Reading Rockets, vocabulary has four different parts:

• Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear. 

• Speaking vocabulary consists of the words we use when we speak. 

• Reading vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read. 

• Writing vocabulary consists of the words we use in writing.

Reading Rockets. (2024). Basics: Vocabulary. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/vocabulary

According to Reading Rockets...

"Children learn word meanings indirectly in three ways:

• They engage daily in oral language

• They listen to adults read to them

• They read extensively on their own" (Reading Rockets, 2024).

To learn vocabulary directly...

• "Provide students with instruction in specific words that are important to students’ content learning or understanding of a particular text

• Teaching students more general word-learning strategies that they can apply to a variety of words, such as analyzing parts of words (e.g., root words)" (Reading Rockets, 2024).

To learn more about how to apply vocabulary in the classroom, watch the linked video that covers semantic gradients, a method to teach students vocabulary based on related words.

Reading Rockets. (2024). Basics: Vocabulary. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/vocabulary

Semantic Gradients. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. https://youtu.be/zTaYuYw8GNc

This means that literary and rhetorical vocabulary must be taught directly for more complex terms at first, and then the teacher can mention these terms in the classroom indirectly so the students get used to the terminology and can use it on their own.

(Reading 101 for Parents: Vocabulary | Reading Rockets, n.d.)

Additionally, students could learn vocabulary in multiple ways. As a teacher, I could let students demonstrate vocabulary mastery through visual art, writing, or spoken word, depending on the preferences of the student.

Another thing that can be done is improving the classroom environment. Making the classroom a safe space where students understand that failure and mistakes are okay will help them engage more with the material and learn more vocabulary.

Reading Rockets. (2024). Basics: Vocabulary. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/vocabulary

Extended Definition: "Writing is a complex process that requires a wide range of skills — a strong vocabulary; an understanding of genre, text structure, and voice; basic mechanical skills (grammar and punctuation); organizational skills; and higher order thinking" (Basics: Writing | Reading Rockets, 2024).

Basics: Writing | Reading Rockets. (2024). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/writing

This can be accomplished by acquiring a set of skills...

• Spelling, capitalization, punctuation, handwriting/keyboarding, and sentence structure

• Text generation (translating thoughts into language)

• Planning, revising, and editing

• Writing knowledge

For specific strategies for teaching these skills, see the attached video where a teacher goes through a writing workshop and helps her students understand the mechanics and basics of writing. There are many ways to teach writing, so choose what works best for your classroom, and don't be afraid to ask for help from others!

A Room of Writers. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. https://youtu.be/UPIxc7IR2YI

Growing Writers | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/launching-young-readers/growing-writers

Writing, however, is changing with technology, as nowadays students can write on a screen instead of on paper. This changes the dynamics of writing slightly, as students may grow up to be more used to typing on a keyboard than writing down words with their hands. As well as teaching students how to write down physical words on a physical paper, an English teacher may have to teach a student how to type.

Basics: Writing | Reading Rockets. (2024). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/writing

For students with dysgraphia or a physical inability to write, perhaps assistive technology such as text-to-speech software should be considered.

Typing on a keyboard may also be a favorable alternative for students who struggle to write.

Differentiated lesson plans should also be considered when teaching writing: a teacher should include culturally sensitive and varied writing prompts as well as give students the option to write about different topics. Multimodal writing options such as letting students write blogs, podcasts, poems, or songs may also help a student feel more comfortable when writing.

Looking at Writing | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/looking-writing