Unit 6: training, fitness and testing by

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fitness requirements 4 different sports

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Linear

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Linear periodization is a structured training method that progressively adjusts intensity and volume over time to optimize performance and prevent plateaus. It typically begins with high volume and low intensity work and transitions to lower volume then high intensity phases focused on strength and power. The training is divided into phases-preparatory ensuring gradual adaptation. (Haff & Triplett, 2016).

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Undulating

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Undulating periodisation is a training method that frequently varies intensity and volume either daily or weekly to optimize performance and reduce boredom. For example sessions may alternate between high rep, low intensity and low rep, high intensity workouts within a short cycle. (Williams et al., 2017) states that this approach is effective for advanced athletes as it provides constant stimuli to avoid plateaus.

Block

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Block periodisation is a training method that divides a cycle into focused blocks, each lasting 2–6 weeks and targeting a specific goal such as endurance and strength. Each block emphasizes one primary adaptation while maintaining others at a minimal level. (Issurin, 2008) says that this approach is ideal for advanced athletes as it allows concentrated effort on specific attributes, ensures proper recovery, and prevents overlapping stress for optimal performance.

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Reference list.

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Haff, G.G. & Triplett, N.T. (2016). Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Williams, T.D., Tolusso, D.V., Fedewa, M.V., and Esco, M.R., 2017. Comparison of periodized and non-periodized resistance training on strength: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 47(10), pp.2083-2100.

Issurin, V.B. (2008). Block periodization versus traditional training theory: a review. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 48(1), pp.65–75.

Zatsiorsky, V. M., & Kraemer, W. J. (2006). Science and Practice of Strength Training. Human Kinetics.

Selye, H. (1976). The Stress of Life. McGraw-Hill.

Supercompensation cycle

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The supercompensation cycle is a concept in exercise that describes the body's process of adapting to physical stress. After an intense workout the body experiences a temporary decline in performance due to fatigue and muscle depletion. During the recovery phase the body repairs and rebuilds muscle tissue often surpassing its previous state of strength or endurance then it enters the state of supercompensation. (Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, 2006) states that to optimise performance gains, training should occur at the peak of this recovery phase, just before the body returns to baseline levels.

GAS

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The GAS model explains the physiological responses to stress and its adaptation overtime.

GAS consists of three stages:

The alarm reaction: where the body initially responds to stress.

The resistance stage: where the body adapts to the ongoing stressor and tries to return stable.

The exhaustion phase: which occurs if the stress persists beyond the body’s ability to adapt, potentially leading to fatigue or injury.

This concept has been widely applied in both physical and psychological stress contexts, illustrating how the body’s adaptive mechanisms function to cope with prolonged or intense stress (Selye, 1976).

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resisted sprints

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Resisted sprints are exercised performed with added resistance such as pushing a sled with added weight on or using bungee cords. Studies from (Spinks et al., 2007; Hasan et al., 2021) have demonstrated that RST can improve acceleration performance, sprint times, and leg power in various football codes. (Amore et al., 2024) study showed a six-week integrated RST program with variable resistive loads enhanced sprint performance and maintained jump capabilities in young U-14 male football players.

Uphill sprints

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Uphill sprints are high intensity sprints which are performed uphill to promote improvement of explosive power and speed because of the added resistance by going uphill. (Kavaliauskas et al., 2015) suggest incline hill sprints offer significant benefits for football players' performance. Uphill sprint training (UST) has been shown to improve agility, strength, VO2max, and 3-km time trial performance in soccer players. (Brechue et al., 2010) also states that sprint performance in football is characterized by rapid acceleration through 18.3 m and maintaining high velocity, with lower-body strength and power correlating strongly with sprint times and acceleration.

Reference List

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SPINKS, C.D. et al. (2007) ‘The effects of resisted sprint training on acceleration performance and kinematics in soccer,rugby union, and Australian Football Players’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(1), pp. 77–85. doi:10.1519/00124278-200702000-00015.

Amore, M. et al. (2024) ‘Impact of sled-integrated resisted sprint training on Sprint and vertical jump performance in Young U-14 male football players’, Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(4), p. 256. doi:10.3390/jfmk9040256.

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Kavaliauskas, M., Kilvington, R. and Babraj, J. (2017) ‘Effects of in-season uphill sprinting on physical characteristics in semi-professional soccer players’, The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 57(3). doi:10.23736/s0022-4707.16.06066-7.

Brechue, W.F., Mayhew, J.L. and Piper, F.C. (2010) ‘Characteristics of sprint performance in college football players’, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(5), pp. 1169–1178. doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181d68107.

Continuous training

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Continuous training is a form of exercise that you perform steadily with consistent intensity without rest and it is typically used to improve cardiovascular endurance. (Dr.S.KARTHICK, 2024; Spanoudaki, 2011) state that continuous training involves sustained exercise at a constant submaximal intensity, while interval training alternates between high-intensity periods and lower-intensity or rest periods.

Fartlek training

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Fartlek training is a form of interval training that combines continuous and high-intensity exercise by varying speed and terrain throughout a workout. This type of training is widely used by endurance athletes to enhance cardiovascular fitness, speed, and mental resilience (Gleim & McHugh, 1997). Some key benefits of fartlek training are improvement of aerobic and anaerobic capacity. Additionally (Heydari et al., 2012) say that fartlek training helps increase running efficiency, speed, and agility, making it a valuable method for athletes looking to improve performance. The unstructured nature of the training also makes it enjoyable and less monotonous compared to traditional interval training while contributing to effective calorie burn and fat loss.

Interval training

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Interval training is a form of exercise that alternates between high-intensity bursts of activity and lower-intensity recovery periods. (Gibala & McGee, 2008) say that it is commonly used in various forms such as running, cycling, and strength training, with High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) being a popular example. (Buchheit & Laursen, 2013) state that the benefits interval training include improved cardiovascular health, increased calorie burn, enhanced metabolic rate, and greater time efficiency compared to steady-state cardio.

Static stretching

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Static stretching is a form of flexibility exercise where a muscle is stretched and held in a fixed position for a prolonged period typically between 15 to 60 seconds. (Konrad et al., 2017; Page, 2012) state that it is commonly used to enhance flexibility, reduce muscle tension, and aid in post-exercise recovery and regular static stretching can improve joint range of motion, enhance posture, and promote relaxation. But (Behm et al., 2016) state that unlike dynamic stretching, it is not ideal for warm-ups, as it does not adequately prepare muscles for high-intensity movements.

Dynamic stretching

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Dynamic stretching involves controlled movements that take muscles and joints through a full range of motion to prepare the body for physical activity. (Behm & Chaouachi, 2011) state that it enhances performance by improving flexibility, increasing blood circulation, and activating neuromuscular pathways, making it particularly effective as a warm-up routine. Studies from (McMillian et al., 2006; Samukawa et al., 2011) suggest that dynamic stretching improves agility, power, and reaction time while reducing injury risk by promoting joint mobility and muscle activation.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation

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Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation is an advanced stretching technique that combines passive stretching with isometric contractions to improve flexibility and range of motion. (Hindle et al., 2012) states that it is widely used in rehabilitation and athletic training due to its effectiveness in increasing muscle elasticity, enhancing strength, and improving coordination. Additionally (Lee, Lee & Oh, 2014) suggest that PNF can aid in injury prevention and recovery by promoting greater muscle function and reducing stiffness (Lee, Lee & Oh, 2014).

Reference list

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Konrad, A., Gad, M., & Tilp, M. (2017). Effect of PNF stretching training on the properties of human muscle and tendon structures. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 27(10), 1070-1080.

Behm, D. G., Blazevich, A. J., Kay, A. D., & McHugh, M. (2016). Acute effects of muscle stretching on physical performance, range of motion, and injury incidence in healthy active individuals: A systematic review. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 41(1), 1-11.

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Behm, D. G., & Chaouachi, A. (2011). A review of the acute effects of static and dynamic stretching on performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 111(11), 2633–2651.

McMillian, D. J., Moore, J. H., Hatler, B. S., & Taylor, D. C. (2006). Dynamic vs. static-stretching warm-up: The effect on power and agility performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 492–499.

Samukawa, M., Sato, S., Morotome, Y., & Yasuda, K. (2011). Effects of dynamic stretching on joint flexibility, muscle function, and performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(2), 542–546.

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Hindle, K. B., Whitcomb, T. J., Briggs, W. O., & Hong, J. (2012). Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF): Its mechanisms and effects on range of motion and muscular function. Journal of Human Kinetics, 31(1), 105-113.

Lee, J. H., Lee, D. K., & Oh, J. S. (2014). The effects of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation therapy on pain and function. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 26(12), 1941-1944.

Reference list

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Dr.S.Karthick. (2024). Physical Education Various Sports Training: A Systematic review. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 6(6).

S, S. (2011). Interval versus Continuous Training. Journal of Sports Medicine & Doping Studies, 01(01).

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Gleim, G. W., & McHugh, M. P. (1997). Flexibility and its effects on sports injury and performance. Sports Medicine, 24(5), 289-299.

Heydari, M., Freund, J., & Boutcher, S. H. (2012). The effect of high-intensity intermittent exercise on body composition of overweight young males. Journal of Obesity, 2012, 1-8.

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Buchheit, M., & Laursen, P.B. (2013). High-intensity interval training, solutions to the programming puzzle. Sports Medicine, 43(5), 313-338.

Gibala, M.J., & McGee, S.L. (2008). Metabolic adaptations to short-term high-intensity interval training: A little pain for a lot of gain? Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 36(2), 58-63.

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The cooper run is a test designed to measure a persons aerobic endurance and cardiovascular fitness. the test requires you to run as far aspossible in 12 minutes typically on a flat surface. (Cooper, K.H., 1968) states that the total distance covered is then compared to standardized tables based on age and gender to estimate aerobic capacity.

Cooper, K. H. (1968). Aerobics. Bantam Books.

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The One-Rep Max (1RM) is the maximum amount of weight an individual can lift for a single repetition of a given exercise while maintaining proper form. It is commonly used to measure maximum strength in exercises like the bench press, squat, and deadlift (LeSuer et al., 1997).

LeSuer, D. A., McCormick, J. H., Mayhew, J. L., Wasserstein, R. L., & Arnold, M. D. (1997). The accuracy of prediction equations for estimating 1-RM performance in the bench press, squat, and deadlift. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 11(4), 211-213.

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The Hand Grip Test is a simple and widely used measure of grip strength, which is an indicator of overall muscular strength and endurance. It is commonly performed using a hand dynamometer, where the individual squeezes the device with maximum force for a few seconds (Massy-Westropp et al., 2011).

Massy-Westropp, N., Gill, T. K., Taylor, A. W., Bohannon, R. W., & Hill, C. L. (2011). Hand grip strength: Age and gender stratified normative data in a population-based study. BMC Research Notes, 4(1), 127.

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The 1-Minute Sit-Up Test is a fitness assessment that measures muscular endurance of the abdominal muscles. It requires an individual to perform as many correctly executed sit-ups as possible in 60 seconds while following a standardized technique (McManis et al., 1993).

McManis, B. G., Baumgartner, T. A., & Wuest, D. A. (1993). Objectivity and reliability of the 1-minute sit-up test. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64(2), 147-150.

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Rowing power tests, such as the Wingate Rowing Test, evaluate anaerobic power and endurance, making them valuable in training and performance analysis (Ingham et al., 2002).

Ingham, S. A., Whyte, G. P., Jones, K., & Nevill, A. M. (2002). Determinants of 2,000 m rowing ergometer performance in elite rowers. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 88(3), 243-246.

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Two agility training methods are ladder drills and zig zag runs. ladder drills involve fast movement through an agility ladder that has been laid at on the ground which help improve speed and footwork. Zig zag runs require markers or cones laid out in a zig zag pattern which can replicate a real game situation and this enhances a players ability to change direction quicker and more controlled. (Patowary & Das, 2023) states that agility training methods have shown positive effects on football players' performance. Plyometric exercises, including lateral plyometric jumps, significantly improve agility as measured by tests like the Illinois agility test and lateral shuffle test.

References

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Patowary, D., & Das, L. (2023). Effectiveness of lateral plyometric jumps on agility in football players. Indian Journal of Physical Therapy and Research, 5(2), 153–157.

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Power training methods associated with football is plyometric and it has shown significant benefits to athletic performance. (Adams et al., 1992) suggests that a combination of squat and plyometric training produced greater improvements in vertical jump performance compared to either method alone. Also (Pacholek & Zemková, 2020) state that for elite women footballers, complex training, improved power and vertical jump height while combined training (maximal strength and dynamic method) enhanced strength and repeated resistance exercises.

Reference

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Pacholek, M., & Zemková, E. (2020). Effect of two strength training models on muscle power and strength in elite women’s football players. Sports, 8(4), 42.

Adams, K., O'Shea, J. P., O'Shea, K. L., & Climstein, M. (1992). The effect of six weeks of squat, plyometric and squat-plyometric training on power production. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 6(1), 36–41.

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