An estimated 80 to 90 percent of milk in developing countries is produced in small-scale farming systems. These operations are based on low inputs, so production per dairy animal is quite low.

A TMR or Total Mixed Ration is a method of feeding cows that combines all forages, grains, protein feeds, minerals, vitamins and feed additives formulated to a specified nutrient concentration into a single feed mix. The TMR or complete ration mix is then offered free choice. Dairy herds may spend the majority of their time indoors in modern, well ventilated and light cattle sheds or outside in small lots close to the milking parlour, depends on the climate. The system is also called high input and high output. In other words you have to invest a lot of money into your animals (feed, minerals, vitamins, additives, vet, etc.) to get very high production. Under these conditions you are able to get from a Friesian cow over 30 litres of milk per day or over 20 litres of milk from a Fleckvieh cow. More milk you get from your cows, more sensitive they are to any changes in management, bad feed or treatment.
• recommended breeds: Fleckvieh, Friesian

Dairy cows are extensively grazed. This is typical of what the general public might consider to be a “traditional way of farming”. Grass land can be kept in natural way, without irrigation. It is necessary to use a synchronization for this system. A good practice is to have calving commencing 4 to 6 weeks before the start of the spring rains. AI will then commence 6 to 8 weeks after the first rains have fallen, when the veld has had time to become green and has grown out enough to support the needs of the cow and her calf. Disadvantage of this system is no milk production and income during dry season.
• recommended breeds: cross with Jersey or Fleckvieh

Using irrigation in grass-based system will increase a milk production. There is no need of synchronization in the system. Cows are inseminated 2-3 month after calving. A farm milk production is more or less the same all the year round. Irrigated lots have to be fenced.

While in the developed countries production of quality beef is usually achieved through the feeding of high-energy rations to young animals (6 to 30 months old), the bulk of the beef produced in the developing countries still comes from rather extensive systems. The main systems of production, and various combinations of them, can be identified as follows.

Under these systems specialists, not necessarily farmers, undertake the last phases of the beef production chain-feeding and finishing. The systems vary according to the principal feed ingredient used: grass, fodder, silage, grain, or industrial by-products. The operation of growing and finishing activities independently of breeding and rearing leads to job specialization, which is usually accompanied by a zoning of the beef industry as a whole.
• recommended breeds: Angus, Hereford, Simmental

In the past this was the traditional system of beef production in many parts of Europe. Small farmers kept young males and some culled heifers for feeding and finishing, and fed them on home-grown fodder. Fattening and finishing of work oxen was also an important source of beef. Under the mixed farming systems practised today, the feeder cattle are usually, but not always, produced on specialized breeding and raising farms located on poorer land or land unsuited to intensive farming.
• recommended breeds: Beefmaster, Bonsmara, Brangus, Simbrah

The breeding, raising, growing and finishing activities are operated by the same people on virtually the same grazings in extensive systems of beef production. This occurs in most of the pastoralist areas of Africa and is also adopted by some ranchers in Latin America. Under this system meat is often a by-product of milk production, and beef output may be as low as 7 kg per hectare per year on a carcass basis; acceptable carcass weights (equal to or above 150 kg) can only be achieved when steers are 5 years or older. The animals stay in good condition for only 3–4 months of the year following the end of the rainy season. The small gain accumulated in these months is often partly lost (up to 25 percent) when stock are trekked over several hundred kilometres to slaughterhouses, which are usually located near large urban centres. However, in such a system there are practically no production costs, except those for watering the animals.
• recommended breeds: Boran, Brahman, Tuli

Reference: Moran, J. (2009). Key performance indicator’s to diagnose poor farm performance and profitability of smallholder dairy farmers in Asia. Asian Australasian Journal of Animal Science 22 (12), 1709-1717. 

Prolactin is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland beginning at parturition  and directly stimulates the transcription of milk protein genes. 
Prolactin acts by increasing the transcription rate of mRNA from milk protein genes and also by decreasing the degradation rate of mRNA from milk proteins.


MILK LET DOWN/ MILK EJECTION reflex
Oxytoxin.
Neuroendocrine reflex
Afferent pathway neuronal (input from suckling or milking) > Brain > hypothalamus >anterior pituitary gland > efferent pathway > oxytocin > blood-borne > mammary gland > myoepithelial contraction

Prolactin - milk production
- stimulate growth of mammary tissue in preparation of milk production 
- progesterone and oestrogen can block prolactin 
- Suckling induce afferent pathway, then result in release of prolactin from APP for formation of milk

Mammogenesis - from prenatal to early lactation or gestation, development of mammary tissue to prepare for lactation 
Lactogenesis - initiated near time of parturition
- 1st stage: partial enzymatic and cytological differentiation of the alveolar cells
- 2nd stage; copious secretion of milk 
Galactopoeisis - milk secretion maintained until the young no need milk! so remove young then negative feedback ,then stop the maintenance then ovulation come back!!
Prolactin has very little effect on glactopoeisis, hence concurrent gestation (with progestrone which inhibit prolactin) is not much interfere with milk output.  
Growth hormone (STH), ACTH (or glucocorticoids), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), insulin, and parathyroid hormone are more important at this stage of production. 
Growth hormone direct the energy and nutrient for milk synthesis rather than body development. 
Mammary involution - cessation of sukling or milking; decreases in number of mammary epithelial cell; 2 months before parturition. As many as 50 percent of the mammary epithelial cells may be carried over from one lactation to the next.

Milk yield capacity  and persistency of lactation< degree of mammary development