Structural Levels of Proteins

-made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur

-built from amino acids

-has an amine group (NH2) and an acid group (COOH)

-vital role in cell function

-act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies (immune system)

Fibrous Proteins (structural proteins)

-very important in binding structures together

- provide strength in certain body tissues

- collagen is in bones, cartilledge, and tendons and is the most abundant protein in the body

- keratin is the structural protein of hair and nails and makes skin tough

- stable

Globular Proteins (functional proteins)

-do things rather than just form structures

-function as antibodies and enzymes

-can be denatured since the hydrogen bonds are fragile and easily broken by heat and excesses of pH

Enzymes and Enzyme Activity

- enzymes are functional proteins that act as a biological catalyst

-enzymes bind and hold the reacting molecules, when bounded to the enzymes active site it undergoes structural changes, and finally becomes a new product

-they're reusable

- determines which reactions are possible at a certain time

- named according to the specific type of reaction they catalyze

- Holds DNA together (Adenine and Thynine)

- Gives DNA its shape

- Weaker than an ionic and covalent bond

- It is an electrostatic attraction between polar molecules when a hydrogen atom bonds to a highly electronegative atom like Nitrogen, Oxygen or Flourine

-ATP provides a form of energy that's usable by all cells

-It is formed when glucose is digested. Although glucose is the main source of energy, it can not be used directly by animals. It will be broken down and the energy that is released will be stored in ATP molecules.

-The structure of a typical ATP molecule is a ribose sugar, an adenine group, and 3 phosphate groups.

-ATP is used when the bonds go through hydrolysis.

The reaction is:

ATP --> ADP (A ribose sugar, an adenine group, and 2 Phosphate groups) + Phosphate Group + Energy

Monosaccharides

-simple sugars

-monomer of carbohydrates

Examples include: glucose, fructose, galactose

Formula is C6H12O6

( they are isomers, meaning that they have the same chemical make up, different formulas.)

Disaccharides

- two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis

-examples include: lactose ( galactose+glucose). And maltose ( glucose+glucose)

Polysaccharides

- Long branching chains of linked simple sugars

-Ideal storage product because they are large, insoluble molecules

-2 polysaccharide important to the body.

-Starch- storage polysaccharide formed by plants.

-We take it in by grain products and root vegetables..

-Glycogen- found in animals tissues ( largely in muscles and liver)

-Both starch and glycogen are formed by linked glucose unit.

a. CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS

-release hydrogen ions (H+)

-are proton donors

-pH below 7

-acids and bases react to form water and a salt

-have a sour taste

-compounds that break down hydrogen ions

b. CHARACTERISTICS OF BASES

-keeps things from being acidic

-release hydroxyl ions (OH-)

-are proton acceptors

-pH above 7

-can have a bitter taste

c.PH: ACID-BASE CONCENTRATIONS

-pH: measures the relative concentration of hydrogen ions

-pH 7 : neutral

-pH above 7: basic

-pH below 7: acidic

- buffers: chemicals that can regulate pH change

-(NH3) forms OH when reacted with water

- bases are ionic bonds

-break apart negatively charged by hydrogen ions

-

AB--> A+B

Compound breaks down into two or more elements

Involves energy source such as heat, light, or electricity

2H2O--> 2H2+O

* Is an organic compound

- ionic compounds are easily separated into their ions in water

- vital to body function

- charged particles which means all salts are electrolytes

- electrolytes conduct electrical currents in solution

Covalent Bonds- The chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

Covalent bonds are used when an atom wants to fill its valence shell with the largest amount of electrons that it can hold.

- Strongest of the three chemical bonds

- The human body is made up almost entirely of covalent bonds

- Holds together RNA

-The backbone of the structure is made up of sugars and phosphate molecules

-The rest of the structure is made up of nucleotides

2 types:

-DNA : Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine

- Double stranded (double helix)

-2 RNA strands

-Has the sugar deoxyribose

-Stores genetic material in most cells

-RNA: Adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil

-Single stranded

-3 types: mRNA, tRNA, RNA

-Has the sugar ribose

-Main source if genetic storage in viruses

Type of chemical bonding between two ions of opposite charges

During ionic bonding atoms become stable through the transfer of electrons

They form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom it another

Example: COOH -->COO- + H+

They also play an important role in determining the shapes of proteins

-enzymes speed up the rate of the chemical reaction

-they cause the break down of bonds allowing for chemical bonding

-they are reusable

Atoms are the smallest unit and is composed of a nucleus, made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Atomic mass number equals sum of protons and neutrons.

Isotopes are the same number of protons and electrons but vary in the number of neutrons.

Ions are atoms that are electrically neutral but when they gain or lose electrons during bonding their positive and negative charges are no longer balanced and this is what makes them an ion.

Ionic bonds are the transfer of electrons.

Covalent bonds are the sharing of electrons.

Ionic bonds form when their valence shell are incompletely filled and they have to lose or gain and electron.

Covalent bonds form so each atom is able to fill its valence she'll at least a part of the time.

The Valence shell is the outermost shell. Shell 1 can hold 2 electrons, 2 can hold 8 electrons, and 3 can hold about 18 electrons.

Electrons are negative, protons are positive, and neutrons are neutral.

-Electrons occupy generally fixed regions or space around the nucleus called the electron shell

-Electrons closer to the nucleus are positive charged

-Electrons further from the nucleus are less securely held

-First shell can hold 2 electrons

-Second shell can hold up to 8 electrons

-Third shell can hold up to 8 electrons

-most abundant inorganic compound in the body

-vital properties include:

-high heat capacity

-polarity/solvent properties

-chemical reactivity

-cushioning

Involves synthesis AND decomposition reactions

AB+C-------> AC +B

Products must remain electrically neutral

-2 pieces join together resulting in a complex compound

-OPPOSITE of decomposition

EX.  

A + B ---> AB

CaO + CO₂ ---> CaCO₃

-Importance in the body: Anabolism is the build up of materials in the body, synthesis reactions allow for this.

-Anabolism requires dehydration synthesis, which is when water is removed to join the molecules, creating more complex ones.

-Synthesis reactions include protein synthesis which promotes the formation of polypeptide chains

-Without synthesis reactions the body would simply not function as these are essential.

a)Atomic Mass

-It is the sum of protons and neutrons.

-Electrons are so small they don't count.

-A neutron and proton are each counted for as 1 whereas and electron is .001.

b)Atomic Number

-Tells us where it is located on periodic table.

-It is the number of protons in the atom. This can then help us to find the number of electrons which is the same as protons.

c)Atomic Weight and Isotopes

-Atomic weight is close to the mass number of the most abundant isotope.

-An isotope is an element with the same amount of protons and same atomic number.

*The amount of neutrons vary. For Ex.

Carbon is p-6 n-6 e-6

Carbon 14 is p-6 n-8 e-6

- A radioisotope is a heavier isotope that tends to be unstable.

-monomer of lipids are fatty acids

a.) Triglycerides

-polymer of lipids

-composed of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol molecule- C3H5(OH)3

Neutral fats- 3 different fats, 3 chains

-found in fat deposits

-source of stored energy

Saturated fatty acids-contain only single covalent bonds

-have more energy in them so that energy is stored as fat

-solid at room temperature

Unsaturated fatty acids- contain one or more double covalent bonds

-liquid at room temperature

b.) Phospholipids

-charged

-contain two fatty acids rather than three

-forms cell membranes

c.) Steroids

-four carbon rings fused together

-includes cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some other hormones

-cholesterol is the basis for all steroids