-His research on meteorology is what lead to him making a theory on atomism

-He said that pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture is independent and the total pressure is all of the pressures of each gas added up. 

-He then learned how to calculate atomic weights to figure out the atomic structure of each compound 

 -He also created the law of the thermal expansion of gases

-These ideas have been kept the same mostly and is now the basis of modern chemistry and physics

-He made a theory to explain color blindness, he said the color of the fluid in his eyes were like a filter to certain colors in the spectrum.  His theory was proven wrong a few days later but 150 years later it was shown that Dalton had red-green color blindness, now called Daltonism. 

-Dalton was loved by the people of Manchester so much they made a life size statue to be erected of him in Town Hall

Source: https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/john-dalton/

By: Darsh Patel

John Dalton was an infamous scientist based in the booming city of Manchester. His work greatly contributed to various fields of scientific discovery.

• Dalton began his career at a young age, moving to Manchester to tutor science at the Manchester Academy. His duties failed to leave him time for his own scientific interests and research.

• He soon joined the Literary & Philosophical Society, which gave him room for teaching and his own research. He was able to attain access to a well equipped laboratory and more equipment.

• In his time at the Society, he eventually was promoted to president after exemplifying his avid ambition towards investigating his own topics of interest.

• By far, his most interesting accomplishment was the atomic theory. He formulated the Law of Partial Pressures. The Law states that the pressure of a mixed gas is the sum of the pressures that each of its components would exert if occupying the same space.

• He went on to set out the first table of atomic weights. He developed his scientific theories further in lectures to the Royal Society.

• He used five wooden balls made by Peter Edward of Manchester to demonstrate his atomic theory.

• Overall, Dalton’s discoveries led him to become a world renowned scientist in the eyes of the Industrial Revolution.

Britannica - John Dalton: https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dalton

• Dalton was born September 6th, 1766 in Cumberland, England. He died July 27th, 1844 in Manchester.

• He was born into a Quaker family of tradesmen. His grandfather was a shoemaker while his father was a weaver.

• The first publication on color blindness was made by him, after he discovered a defect in both his and his brother’s vision.

https://ilovemanchester.com/history-boddingtons-strangeways-brewery

• By the age of 39, he became the sole proprietor of the company.

• The Boddingtons expanded between the 1870s and 1880s.

• In 1877, Boddingtons made headlines as the #1 business in Manchester because they installed a telephone link between two of their locations.

Source: https://earth.org/data_visualization/the-history-and-future-of-air-pollution-in-manchester/

• The use of coal during greatly decreased as time went on with substitutions some of which being electricity, gas, and oil.

• Manchester was known as one of the most polluted cities in the United Kingdom due to the high amount of coal found in the area which overall increased the use of coal causing a lot of smoke pollution.

• Sulfur pollution was found in Manchester which led to rain turning into acid rain which had negative effects on vegetation.

• Increase in pollution, rapid urbanization are key issues, including the rise of demand for clean sources of water

• The population of Manchester skyrocketed, causing thousands to have to drink water from shallow wells or streams, often polluted due to waste being dumped into rivers and streams

• Many of the industrial waste went directly into the river, including large solid waste going down the rivers

• The buildup of waste caused Manchesters rivers to grow,  making the chances of flooding to happen higher. The River Irwell grew over 3 inches a year

• Due to the terrible sanitation, diseases like typhoid, cholera and dysentery spread rapidly throughout Manchester.

• The city started a project supply the city with water by installing water pipes and reservoirs.

• A massive engineering project began 1885 to bring water from Thirlmere reached Manchester. The project was finished in 1891

By Dylan Chung

Sources:

https://cassowaryproject.org/understanding-modern-manchester-through-baths-and-wash-houses/ 

https://www.hslc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/133-3-Hassan.pdf 

https://www.thoughtco.com/public-health-in-the-industrial-revolution-1221641#:~:text=In%20this%20overcrowding%2C%20disease%20spread%20easily.&text=There%20was%20also%20inadequate%20drainage,privies%20which%20emptied%20into%20cesspits. 

Outside Source

• Ancoat was home to the firm of McConnell and Kennedy which were the largest employer of cotton workers, the about 1,500 people working for them 

• The buildings on the Great Ancoat Street represent the development of cotton mill architecture from the 1800’s to the 1920’s 

• On the other hand there are buildings in Ancoat that represent a Victorian era, with some buildings being a five-story block of flats dating from around 1889.

Works Cited

https://www.manchester.gov.uk/info/511/conservation_areas/1216/ancoats_conservation_area/3 

• Ancoats is ranked as the UK’s top 20 coolest places to live

• People believed that shoes concealed within buildings would bring protection and good luck

• Ancoats was transformed by huge cotton-spinning complexes

• Ancoats had a large network of canals, which drew manufacturers to it for transportation

• Densely packed streets of cottages sat alongside huge cotton mills

• Had overcrowded, badly built housing with no plumbing

• Riddled with diseases such as cholera

• Ancoats was a hub of cotton mills, factories, and working-class communities

• Contributed to Manchester’s title of “Cottonopolis”

• Despite poor living conditions, workers thrived, bringing the area’s unique culture

Outside Source:https://www.northerngroup.co.uk/blog-news/the-history-of-ancoats-from-industrial-powerhouse-to-vibrant-community/#:~:text=Once%20the%20beating%20heart%20of,Manchester's%20reputation%20as%20%22Cottonopolis.%22

Sources:

https://coimages.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/21/552/large_1867_0047__0007_.jpg

https://www.britannica.com/technology/Jacquard-loom

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/jacquard-loom

~Charmi Patel

Sources:

• https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zys7xbk

• https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object/nmah_1070132

Extra Information:

• The first Industrial Revolution in England took place in a small region marked by key innovations like coal-smelted iron and the first factory.

• Key cities, including Coalbrookdale, Derby, Preston, and Birmingham, contributed to this industrial development through major inventions.

• Manchester became the heart of the revolution, with its cotton industry driving the nation’s industrial success and gaining worldwide recognition.

Source: http://grimshaworigin.org/grimshaw-involvement-in-the-industrial-revolution/manchester-the-first-industrial-city/

The shoe at Murray’s Mills:

• A shoe was found in the roof space of Murray’s Mills while it was being surveyed by achaeologists.

• It was likely that the shoe was deliberately placed there due to the old belief that concealed shoes in buildings would bring the occupants good luck and protect them.

• Murray’s Mills and their neighbors, McConnel and Kennedy were all part of a complex of cotton-spinning that transformed Ancoats.

• Textile mills were also part of the city, bringing in engineers whose expertise also helped the cotton-spinning factories, as were glassworks that made everything, from decorative glass pieces to functional bottles used by chemical firms in the city.

• The city also has a brief connection to aviation, through A.V. Roe & Co., which was a company that set up its first shop in the basement of Brownsfield Mill and eventually made the WWI biplane, Afro 504K.

Pollard Street, on the banks of the Ashton Canal

• Peel & Williams was an iron foundry that manufactured steam engines and boilers along the Ashton Canal.

• John Hetherington & Sons made textile machinery.

• There were many businesses along Ancoats’ network of canals and it was no coincidence that there were.

• Businesses used canals to bring in large quantities of bulky raw material and ship out finished goods.

Italians

• Over 2,000 Italians moved into Ancoats and a small community called ‘Ancoats Little Italy’ was created.

• The Italians introduced things like the barrel piano, ice, wafers, cones, and ice cream to the streets of Manchester.

Soap

• A model of soap leads to Sankeys, an influential nightclub that was an important part of Manchester’s music scene and a haven for music fanatics, located at Beehive Mill.

• The model of soap was tribute to the building’s former use.

• Beehive Mill was first created as a cotton mill in 1824 until it was turned into a soap works.

• Ancoats was hit hard after the industrial decline of Manchester and by the 1960s, the cotton-spinning industry was practically gone and communities were separated.

• Conservations efforts are currently being made to preserve the legacy of Ancoats.

https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/ancoats-from-cotton-to-cool/

• With more opportunities for a new future, the population grew from 60,000 to 142,000

• Deaths rates caused life expectancies to drop dramatically

• Water was valuable, out of 47,00 homes only 11,000 had piped water

• Many households took water from polluted streams and shallow wells

• Pollution was caused on how factories dumped their waste in the waters, as they didn’t know where they could dispose of it

• Instead of addressing the problem, they ignored the problem and put all of there waste in the rivers and streams

• Although Manchester has sewer networks, it didn’t help stop the problem as they were inadequate.

Source:

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/water-and-sanitation

Outside info:

• All the slums had poor quality housing which weren’t habitable

• Some houses didn’t have bathrooms’

• Slums were built to house workers who operated facilities

Source:

https://manchesterhistorian.com/2023/forgotten-communities-the-hidden-faces-of-manchesters-slum-clearance-by-emma-breslin/#:~:text=These%20slums%20were%20built%20in,%2C%20Cheetham%20Hill%2C%20and%20Broughton.

-It was the first practical sewing machine to be brought to England from America in that year

-Howe sold the machine to William Thomas who took out a British patent for the design and founded the Thomas Company

-Howe struggled financially, unable to enlist interest in his machine in the US, he went to England in 1847 where he entered the employment of William Thomas

-He returned to the US after only 2 years, returning penniless, and went back to work as a journeyman machinist.

-In England, the sewing machine gained massive popularity and widely recognized

-Howe Eventually became a rich man, receiving royalties on their machines.

Source:

https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co44744/sewing-machine-by-elias-howe

https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/july-09/

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/richard-arkwright

https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/richard-arkwright/

• Richard Arkwright, a Lankshire entrepreneur, made a simple spinning machine to meet the growing need for cotton cloth and yarn.

• His invention replaced the work of using human hands. The water frame enabled it to spin cotton quickly and in bigger quantities.

• He was born on 1732 in Preston to a poor family that had a successful hair-cutting and wig-making business in Bolton.

• By 1767, he met John Kay, who was a skilled clockmaker. Together, they made the first prototype of the spinning machine. The spinning machine was initially designed to be operated by horsepower. 

• The spinning machine had moving rollers that drew out cotton fibers, imitating the spinner’s fingers, and then, rotating spindles would twist the cotton into yarn and wound it into a bobbin.

• In 1769, Arkwright got a spinning machine patent; after that, he and his business partners decided they wanted to make money from it. They built a multi-story factory in Cromford, Derbyshire which was along the River Derwent.

• Later, Arkwright realized that powering the spinning machine with water rather than horsepower was more efficient. At the mill, he installed huge waterwheels driven by the water and they provided the rotary motion that drove the machine. 

• The spinning machine became known as the water frame.

• Unskilled workers could run the spinning machine. They just had to feed the machines with cotton, piece breakages in the yarn, and change the full bobbins for empty ones.

• Arkwright also invented the factory system. His Cranford mill was the first step tha reshaped England’s landscape in the next half-century. 

• By 1800, almost 1,000 men women, and children worked in his mills, and they had to work two 13-hour shifts a day.

• The workers worked so many hours with the loud machines that they got hearing loss.

• invented by Joseph-Marie Jacquard, a French weaver and merchant, he built on past eventions and made it possible for detailed patterns to be created by unskilled workers

• This invention caused fashionable cloth cost to increase and revolutionized the patterned cloth and how it was woven

Weaving Patterns

• to create a weaving pattern, the weft(a thread) is put under the warp(set of threads) and they interlace each other creating a cloth; the way the it occurs changes the pattern that is woven

• The key of the invention was the changeable cards that had instructions on them, this took over the job of the draw boys that used to raise and lower threads by hand, creating a much faster process

• Jacquard looms were able to multiple any pattern and replicate it over and over, because of these cards

Uses of Jacquard fabric

• Intricate patterns are made, letting the user to create simple patterns to highly detailed designs

• The composition of the Jacquard fabric is breathable, stretchable, and soft. Some common fibers used are cotton, silk, linen, wool, and synthetic blends

• The fabric also has good heat retaining abilities, making it good to wear for different climates and seasons 

Source - https://alnassaj.com/jacquard-fabric/#:~:text=Features%20Of%20Jacquard%20Loom&text=Punched%20Cards%3A%20The%20defining%20feature,threads%20are%20raised%20or%20lowered.

• the slaves were also forced onto cotton plantations

• due to cotton textiles having such high demand people would want cotton a lot, so textiles were bought from India traded for African slaves who then helped with the growth of cotton production

• most cotton spun in Manchester was from plantations in South America

• The rich of Manchester further exploited land to Maximize labor for raw cotton gains

• As the industry grew Manchester couldn’t keep up in terms of raw cotton and turned to the slavery infested USA for cotton off of their plantations

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/manchester-cotton-and-slavery

https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchester-England/Evolution-of-the-modern-city

• Raw cotton was planted and picked by enslaved Africans on American soils

• Most of Manchesters cotton spun and woven was from South America and the Caribbean

• As the demand for the cotton spun and woven increased, Americans intensified the work load to get more cotton

• South Asia demand for cotton was high and Britain couldn’t make enough so they turned to slaves

• Slave voyages made a growing market in Manchesters textiles and because of this the population kept increasing

• To make manufacturing easier people created new inventions with the knowledge of steam power

• Since the population kept increasing, the city became more populated and the first industrial city

https://www.theguardian.com/news/ng-interactive/2023/apr/03/cotton-capital-how-slavery-made-manchester-the-worlds-first-industrial-city

• Born: September 6, 1766, in Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England.

• Profession: English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist.

• Major Contribution: Best known for developing the Atomic Theory of matter, which laid the foundation for modern chemistry.

• Key elements of Dalton's Atomic Theory:

• All matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.

• Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.

• Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.

• Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms; atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions.

• Color Blindness: Dalton was colorblind, a condition he researched and published a paper on in 1794, providing a scientific explanation for the condition (now called Daltonism in his honor).

• Work in Meteorology: Dalton also made contributions to meteorology, studying the behavior of gases and formulating Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures, which states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.

• Influence: Dalton's work was a major step in the development of atomic theory and chemistry, influencing later scientists like J.J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford.

• Death: He died on July 27, 1844, in Manchester, England.

• Legacy: The unit of atomic mass, the dalton (Da), is named in his honor.

Millions of slaves were forced to work on plantations to produce things like tobacco and sugar, which were then exported to Europe.

Cotton textiles were some of the most demanded goods on the west coast of Africa. These were purchased by slave traders and sold in exchange for captured human beings.

British slave traders purchased Manchester made cotton goals, which were transported to the west coast of Africa to be traded for captured African people.

Manchester’s annual exports of textiles to Africa were estimated to be around 24 million pounds today.

By the 1780s, most of the cotton that was woven were grown by enslaved people in the Caribbean and in South America.

As textile manufacturing in Manchester continued to expand, the supply of raw cotton could’t meet the growing demand. This made Manchester’s mill owners turn to the USA, where cotton production with the use of enslaved people would skyrocket.

American planters and landowners saw the rising value of raw cotton due to the expansion of textile manufacturing in Manchester and other European countries.

The climate and soul in souther USA was good for growing cotton. The south already has an agricultural system of using enslaved people to produce different crops.

In 1786, enslaved people in USA grew the country’s first Sea Island cotton, which was cotton that had long, silky fibers. This type of cotton was highly prized by Manchester cotton spinners as it let them spin the fine, high quality thread they specialized in.

Because of the demand of Sea Island cotton, the production of it grew tremendously in the US, from less than 10,000 pounds to 6.4 million pounds in the span of ten years.

Upland cotton was grown farther from the US coast. Their fibers were shorter and attached tightly to their seeds. This made the cleaning process very slow.

In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin which could remove the seeds of upland cotton quickly. This made the production of Upland cotton grow.

The cotton gin needed enslaved laborers to plant and pick raw cotton to keep u with the pace of the gins. In the 30 years after the cotton gin was invented, 250 million slaves had to be relocated to cotton growing areas.

The US government was also aggressive in securing territories for cotton growing, including land annexed against the Native Americans.

The territorial expansion and use of slaves fed the mills of Manchester. By 1860, US plantations supplied almost 90% of the cotton spun and woven in mills.

The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, built in 1830, sped up the transport of American raw cotton from Liverpool’s port to Manchester’s mills. This was one of the main reasons this railway was built. Transporting cotton by canal boat took about 12 hours, but this new railway needed just 2 hours.

The railway also allowed merchants and manufacturers who wanted to inspect stock, strike deals, or arrange shipping, to ravel by rail between Manchester and Liverpool to do business.

The slaves, women, and children who worked to get and use cotton had in wages, freedom, and were treated horribly.

Plantation owners often demanded more cotton for higher profits, and if these goals were not meant, enslaved people would be punished with violence.

Many families and friends were split up as they were forced to work on different plantations, and many children were separated from their parents.

Many enslaved people revolted, even though it was highly dangerous. Some ways the enslaved could resist was by working slowly, damaging property, pretending to be ill, or running away. Despite the threat of punishment, many rebelled against their owners. This made owners fear such rebellions.

Enslaved people took part in their cultures and traditions through music, religion, food, and crafting. They had relationships, raised families, and made communities.

The British slave trade was abolished in 1807, and slavery ended in the British Caribbean in 1833. In 1837, the British government game 20 million pounds in compensation to former slave owners, while former enslaved people weren’t given anything.

Manchester had a complex opinion on the abolition of slavery. Some were against the abolition as it would seriously impact many businesses which heavily depended on the labor of slaves, while others were for the abolition.

The Guardian(theguardian.com)

The importation of vividly colored fabrics from South Asia drove demand for cotton manufacturers.

The population of Manchester in the 18th century grew from 9,000 in 1717 to 25,000 in 1773. This was largely because of the demand for labor in the textile industry. This number later grew to 344,683 in 1861

By 1853, there were 108 cotton mills in Manchester, and it started being referred to as a Cottonopolis, or having a monopoly over cotton.

Here are some facts about this topic:

• Clogs were the footwear worn by Manchester’s industrial women, children, and men. (They dated back to around the 1870s)

• The children only borrowed them since their families couldn’t afford to purchase footwear, they were owned by the Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow.

• Since most children and families were poor, there was a high chance of theft.

• To avoid stealing, on the side of the shoe, the phrase, “CSRS loaned, not to be pawned” was stamped.

• Manchester’s textile mills provided good wages, but often there wasn’t much work to go around.

• When mills were shut down due to shortages or low demand, people struggled to supply themselves of food, clothing, and a living space.

• Charter Street Ragged School provided a supply of food, clothing, and basic education to poverty of Manchester, hence the term “ragged”.

Related Facts:

• Modern industrial factories like metal foundries provide their workers with industrial safety clogs, instead of boots

• The Northampton Town Football Club is named “The Cobblers” because of the number of shoe factories in the area.

• There is a type of dance called English clog dancing, where the dancer can’t show any facial expressions, or move their upper and middle body parts. This is done so that the main focus is on the feet.

https://www.mylearning.org/stories/clogs-and-the-people-who-made-them-and-wore-them/1149

• Early Life: He was born in Cumbria in 1766. He taught at local Quaker school as a principal until 1793, which is when he moved to Manchester to tutor at Manchester Academy.

• Literary and Philosophical Society: Soon after moving to Manchester, he began to work at the Literary and Philosophical Society. He was given his own room and numerous promotions. Ultimately, he became the president. During his time there, he made many scientific advancements such as formulating a new atomic theory to explain chemical reactions and developing a theory that explains color vision deficiency (which he himself suffered from).

• Atomic Theory: He formulated the Law of Potential Pressures in 1801. According to this law, the pressures of a mixed gas is the sum of the pressures that each of its components would exert if occupying the same space. His theory was developed into lectures to the Royal Society in 1803-04 and later on in his New System of Chemical Philosophy.

• Contribution to the Periodic Table: He theorized that each element consisted of atoms that are all alike but differ from atoms of other elements. He assigned atomic weights to the elements that he knew of, which was used to help create the Periodic Table of Elements in the 19th century.

• Teaching Methods: One of his models that he used to demonstrate the three-dimensional structure of atoms was by connecting 3 balls with a stick. This is still used today as a teaching method.

• Color Blindness: He developed a theory to explain color vision deficiency (from which he also suffered from). He theorized that the color of the vitreous humor (the fluid in the eyes) acted as a filter to certain colors in the spectrum. He was met with resistance to his ideas, so he donated his eyes to be examined after his death. The autopsy was preformed by Joseph Ransome and his theory was proved to be incorrect.

• Daltonism: In 1955, 150 years after his death, a DNA analysis published in the journal Science revealed that Dalton lacked the gene for the receptor sensitive to medium wavelength (green) light, which caused his red-green color blindness. The condition is called deuteranopia, but is referred to as Daltonism.

• Subjects of Study: Delton was fascinated with and studied the atmosphere, atomic weights, chemical symbols, color blindness, ethyl ether, northern lights, rain, the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, and more.

• Family: He was born into the a Quaker family of tradesmen. His grandfather, Johnathan Dalton, was a shoemaker and his father, Joseph, was a weaver. His mother was Deborah Greenup, who married his father in 1755. John Delton was the youngest of their three children who survived to adulthood.

• Later Years: He achieved many accomplishments as his atomic theory finally began to prove worthy and gain recognition. He was elected into the fellowship of the Royal Society of London and the Royal Society of Edinburgh, awarded an honorary degree from the University of Oxford, and one of eight foreign associates elected of the French Academy of Sciences, received a pension on Civil List from the British crown, and more.

Website Link: link

https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/william-henry-perkin/

• worlds first synthetic dye made by William Henry Perkin on August 26 1856

  
  

• Perkin, who was originally hired to create a form of quinine, or treatment for malaria, discovered dye through his experiments and his invention became extremely successful

  
  

• Discovery of dye established modern chemical industry as it was an innovative approach to replace coal tars in dyeing

  
  

• Mauveine, or aniline purple, was the world’s first synthetic dye and was mass produced

  
  

• The Perkin collection includes four copies of the third edition of Perkin’s patent, as well as a bottled sample of the dye prepared by Perkin in 1862

  
  

• Dr plater became curious of Perkins mass production of mauveine and used bottled dye to analyze the structure by liquid chomotography

  
  

• Dr Plater discovers that Perkin made certain changes in dye related to mass production that he didn’t want his competitors to know

  
  

• Perkins opened his dye factory at Greenford green, which wasn’t far from London

  
  

• Perkins sold his business and retired at 36 so he could completely focus on research and he went into organic chemistry

  
  

• In 1906 the Perkin medal was created to honor the discovery of mauve and Perkin was awarded the first medal

Sources

https://www.sheffieldmuseums.org.uk/whats-on/crossley-gas-engine/

https://www.farmcollector.com/gas-engines/gas-engines-company-history/crossley-brothers-zmwz19marzhur/

https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/crossley-brothers

• Clogs were the primary shoes worn by the women, children, and men of Industrial Manchester

• The children who wore these never owned them because were lent by Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow to children whose families could not afford to buy shoes

• In order to stop poor children or their families pawning them for money, they were stamped as “CSRS loaned, not to be pawned”

• Due to many struggling to afford food, clothes, and a place to live, “ragged” school like Charter Street in Angel Meadow provided food, clothing, and basic education to Manchester’s poorest people

• While workers could earn good wages, work was never guaranteed because there wasn’t enough to go around in Manchester’s textile mills

• When cotton shortages or low demand for cloth shut down the mills, workers would have to go without wages, leading them to struggle to afford basic necessities such as food, clothes, and shelter

• The clogs demonstrate the perilous lives of Manchester’s industrial workforce

More information:

• Clogs came from patterns which people tended to wear over leather or fabric shoes

• Clogs became very popular because they were durable and very cheap which was perfect for the very poor workers

• The principal purpose of clogs were to prevent main footwear from getting dirty in the mud, however, money was very tight, and couldn’t be spent on such shoes, therefore, clogs were designed and heavily used

https://manchesterka.com/en/eternal/clogs-the-footwear-of-industrial-manchester