History of human technological innovations has heralded the term ‘turning points’ repeatedly to explain the progress of civilization, where many of these innovations were considered so momentous to be called ‘revolutionary’ such as the agricultural revolution, the industrial revolution, and the digital revolution. But with so much of technological inventions, Scott Cook Technological Revolution and the Myth of Gutenberg (1996) stands at the height of them all, because all of us owe our literacy and education to his inventions.

At the heart of Cook’s thesis was what he called the so-called Gutenberg myth: the pervasive notion that there existed some deep-seated connection between Gutenberg’s inventions and the major transformations that constituted the modernity of human affairs. Cook’s article about Gutenberg concluded that while the printing press was indeed an extraordinary creation – it truly did transform communications and the dissemination of knowledge – the connection between the two phenomena was neither simple-minded nor thoroughly determined. Technological revolutions were, he suggested, multivariate phenomena defined by contingency – that is, ‘culture, social structure, elite power, and individual agency’.

Cook’s exploration penetrates beyond surface appearances of technological change to expose these deeper processes that come into play during technological discontinuities, between revolutions and the new world they create.

• Artifact: Stone hand axe.

• Description: The earliest known tools crafted by our ancestors, such as hand axes, represent humanity's first foray into technology, enabling tasks like hunting and food preparation.

Reference:

University, N. (2023, December 1). Paleolithic humans may have understood the properties of rocks for making stone tools. Phys.org. https://phys.org/news/2023-12-paleolithic-humans-understood-properties-stone.html

• Artifact: Gutenberg printer.

• Description: Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge, laying the foundation for the spread of literacy and the democratization of information.

Reference:

Richard. (2023, March 5). The printing press. Totally Stockport. https://totallystockport.co.uk/the-printing-press-invention/

• Artifact: Model of James Watt's steam engine.

• Description: The steam engine, perfected by James Watt in the 18th century, powered the industrial revolution, driving machinery in factories and transforming transportation with steam locomotives and ships.

Reference:

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Steam engine. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/steam-engine

• Artifact: Morse code telegraph machine.

• Description: Samuel Morse's invention of the telegraph in the 19th century revolutionized long-distance communication, enabling near-instantaneous transmission of messages over electrical wires.

Reference:

Kean University. (2015). Invention of the Telegraph [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNhinA8ajoI

• Artifact: Model of Alexander Graham Bell's telephone.

• Description: Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone in the late 19th century transformed interpersonal communication, paving the way for the modern telecommunications industry.

Reference:

Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, February 12). Telephone. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone

• Artifact: Replica of ENIAC.

• Description: The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), completed in 1945, was the world's first general-purpose electronic digital computer, marking the dawn of the digital age.

Reference:

Bateman, C. (2016, November 12). The story behind the first computer in Canada. Spacing Toronto. https://spacing.ca/toronto/2016/11/12/first-computer-canada/

• Artifact: Early internet router.

• Description: The development of the internet in the late 20th century revolutionized global communication, commerce, and social interaction, connecting billions of devices worldwide.

Reference:

Fisher, T. (2021, April 25). What Is a Router (Residential Gateway) and How Does It Work? Lifewire. https://www.lifewire.com/what-is-a-router-2618162

• Artifact: Original iPhone.

• Description: The introduction of the smartphone, exemplified by the original iPhone in 2007, revolutionized personal computing, combining communication, internet access, and multimedia capabilities in a handheld device.

Reference:

Brookfield, C. (2023, August 14). Mastering Smartphone Specifications: How to make the right choice for your customers tech needs. Data Select. https://www.dataselect.com/smartphones/smartphone-specifications-explained/

• Artifact: Diagram of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool.

• Description: The CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology, developed in the 21st century, holds the potential to revolutionize medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology by enabling precise modifications to DNA.

Reference:

Wikipedia Contributors. (2019b, May 6). CRISPR gene editing. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing

• Artifact: AI robot prototype.

• Description: Advances in artificial intelligence and robotics are shaping the future of automation and human-machine interaction, with applications ranging from autonomous vehicles to intelligent assistants.

Reference:

Copeland, B. J. (2022). Artificial intelligence. In Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/artificial-intelligence

Reference:

Wikipedia Contributors. (2019b, March 15). History of technology. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology

Reference:

Bowie, D. (2023, July 11). Exploring the Impact of the Industrial Revolution Factory System. HowStuffWorks. https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/industrial-revolution-factory.htm

Reference:

Rossi, B. (2016, August 2). How companies must adapt to the digital revolution. Information Age. https://www.information-age.com/how-companies-must-adapt-digital-revolution-2256/

Babbage and his difference engine were front and center in Schaeffer's quest for the "primordial matrix," and he believes the birth of a computational model also acted as a catalyst. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, these new "logistics machines" fundamentally changed the boundaries between computable and industrializable. As Schaefer points out, this mechanical engineering "detour" actually paralleled Babbage's own intellectual journey.

He saw the far-reaching impact of Babbage's invention, down to the tiniest details: Babbage's computing engine optimized labor processes and fundamentally changed the nature of economic structure. By constructing Babbage's work in this industrial context, Schaefer brings us closer to an instinctive understanding of our world: the deeper computing machines are integrated into the workings of factories, the closer we are to a new world of mechanized production and social organization.

Rohde’s reconstruction of the epistemic politics of Cold War international relations, especially their reliance on computers and their emphasis on decision-making, is equally masterful, and equally attuned to the contingencies of place and time.  Rohde’s book suggests what will be increasingly necessary in the coming years if scientific knowledge is to be free from ideology: a deeper context for critically evaluating the use of computing power.  This strategy could be more open, and more patient, especially if it is to resist the often-closed and centralised dynamism of corporate software development in recent decades.  The Lumiéres would approve.  Complicated machines and systems have long needed new means of expression Asstro-turf.  Photo by Doug Pensinger/Getty.  Scientists must understand that computer simulations do not have to be closed, algorithmic, ‘decision aids’ constructed within closed epistemic communities – but can instead be instruments for learning, debate and collaboration.

Through his writing, Rohde weaves together insights from history, political science and technology studies into a compelling picture of Cold War techopolitics.  From scalar computing to Star Wars, ‘Pax Technologica’ sketches out the evolution of computational technology and the corresponding shift in the ideological battlefield of the Cold War.

If we go along with Rohde’s story and take seriously her compelling arguments, what we get from her book is a kind of unromantic and realistic unease with technological determinism, and the often-opaque feedback between technological innovation and human agency.  Rohde forces readers to confront our assumptions about technology and rationality.  She makes us feel the ethical stakes of our technological ambitions.

Her work is a timely reminder that technology, politics and human society are intertwined, and that navigating these connections in the 21st century requires humility, foresight and a careful reading of history.

Bibliography for three authors:

Scott Cook, "Technological Revolutions and the Gutenberg Myth"

Simon Schaffer, "Babbage's Intelligence: Calculating Engines and the Factory System"

Joy Rohde, "Pax Technologica: Computers, International Affairs, and Human Reason in the Cold War"