Published works:
The Origin of Species 24 November 1859
Voyage of the Beagle May 1839

The Descent of Man 24 February 1871 

The Expression of Emotions of Man and Animals 1872
 
 Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England (Darwin. 2020). He was a naturalist that wrote The Origin of Species, his theory of evolution proposed an alternative explanation of life history to the widely believed creationism (Darwin, 2020). He created the theory of evolution, natural selection and started early work in animal behaviour.
 
 In Voyage of the Beagle, Darwin looks at different finch species (Camarhynchus pallidus) and how their beaks made them suited to their environment, he thought these finches resembled each other enough to have a common ancestor (Darwin, 2008)(Boundless, 15/08/2020). He introduced the idea that species could change through time and called this natural selection (Darwin,2001).
 
Natural selection explains that a species will have natural pressures driving them to change, for example, diseases that a species will either adapt to overcome or die (Darwin, 2001). The individuals that did survive would then go on to have offspring and pass this advantage on to the next generation.

In The Expression of Emotions of man and Animals Darwin posits that animals would perform voluntary habits and through repetition they would become involuntary (Thierry. 2010).  This would later be identified as the evolutionary change from behaviours of nondisplay to display (Thierry. 2010). 

Monk, J.D., Giglio, E., Kamath, A., Lambert. M.R., McDonough. C.E. (2019) An alternative hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals. Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3, 1622–1631. Retrieved from Nature Ecology & Evolution: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-1019-7.

In this paper Monk, Giglio, Kamath, Lambert and McDonough investigate how evolution has sustained same sex behaviour (SSB) in over 1500 species even though it has fitness costs. It states that they are looking at SSB as a problem, to be solved but rather to try and understand what seems to be a ‘Darwinian Paradox’ (Monk et al, 2019). They question that SSB must be evolutionarily beneficial for it to happen with regularity (Monk et al, 2019). To conclude they say that SSB only becomes confusing when looked at as a divergence from heterosexual behaviours and that looking at from a different perspective will offer a better understanding of roles and behaviours (Monk, 2019). 

Tame Fox experiment 1950

Belyaev ran an experiment to try and breed domestication in red and silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes)(Trut. 1999). He was choosing the foxes that were amiable to humans and letting those breed together (Trut. 1999) (Bidau & D’Elia, 2009). Selecting for tameness over aggression meant selecting for changes in the physiology that controls the hormones and neurochemicals in the body (Trut. 1999) (Bidau & D’Elia, 2009). These changes could have a further effect in the animal’s behaviour and development.

Belyaev selected amiable and non-aggressive foxes to breed in the hope of producing a tame fox population and thus explaining how domestication occurred in dogs. 

After many generations, a small number of the foxes displayed dog-like changes in behaviour when approached by humans (Trut. 1999) (Bidau & D’Elia, 2009). After more than 50 generations later foxes are developing ‘domestication syndrome’ with physical features like white spots, shorter snouts and floppy ears (Trut. 1999) (Bidau & D’Elia, 2009). The same paedomorphic features found in domesticated dogs. 

Kukekova, A. V., Johnson, J. L., Xiang, X., Feng, S., Liu, S., Rando, H. M., & Beklemischeva, V. (2018). Red fox genome assembly identifies genomic regions associated with tame and aggressive behaviours. Nature ecology & evolution, 2(9), 1479-1491.Retrieved from nature.com: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0611-6?report=reader.

This paper explores the genome of the Belyaev foxes (Kukekova et al, 2018). They are trying to isolate the genes responsible for the domestication in the foxes (Kukekova et al, 2018). The Belyaev foxes are more suitable for this as the only genes selectively bred for was amiability towards humans (Kukekova et al, 2018). Whereas dogs over there years were selectively bred for many features making it harder to identify the genes that changed from the wild wolf (Kukekova et al, 2018). Being able to see the genes responsible for domestication means many other mammal species could be domesticated. It also lends more evidence for how dogs were domesticated, and that evolution was a key factor in the creation of the modern dog.

 Published works -
The Work of the Digestive Glands 1897-1902
 Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex 1927
Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes 1928

Pavlov set out to perform experiments on the digestive glands in dogs (Canis familiaris) (Gormezano & Moore, 1966). He rerouted the salivary glands of dogs to a tube that was strapped to the side of the head and this tube was used to measure how much saliva was being produced when the dogs were eating (Clark, 2011).

He noticed that the dogs produced saliva before the food was given, they had made an association between the food and the lab assistants providing it. He investigated why and how this happened (Gormezano & Moore, 1966)(Clark, 2011).

He noticed the dogs didn't need training to salivate when food is near or being eaten, this was 'hard wired' into the animal and he dubbed this a unconditioned response (Gormezano & Moore, 1966)(Clark, 2011). When a stimulus (food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (bell or metronome), after some time the dogs would associate the sound of the neutral stimulus with the food and start to salivate(Gormezano & Moore, 1966)(Clark, 2011). Pavlov called this the conditioned response (Gormezano & Moore, 1966) (Clark, 2011). If the metronome or bell were not accompanied by food the association would disappear, he called this the extinction of the conditioned response (Gormezano & Moore, 1966) (Clark, 2011).

Annotated Bibliography

Zhang, L., Lu, X., Bi, Y., & Hu, L. (2019). Pavlov’s pain: the effect of classical conditioning on pain perception and its clinical implications. Current pain and headache reports, 23(3), 19. Retrieved from Link.spring.com: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11916-019-0766-0. 

This study investigates how classical conditioning influences pain perception, both hyperalgesia and hypoalgesia. They find that it has a profound effect on the perception, maintenance of chronic pain (Zhang, Lu, Bi & Hu, 2019). These findings could have huge implications on how chronic pain is treated. Using conditioning to improve current pain treatment could improve the lives of many that live with chronic pain (Zhang, Lu, Bi & Hu, 2019).
 

The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behaviour 1986

In the Shadow of Man 1971

Among many others 

Goodall studied and observed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Gombe, Africa (Peterson, 2008). What she observed changed how humans define themselves, as up until that point humans had been the only other species to use and modify tools (Peterson, 2008) (McClain & McGrew, 1995). The chimpanzees would pick a plant, take the leaves off it and use the stem to put into a termite mound in order to eat them (Goodall, 1964). Goodall also witnesses the chimpanzees using leaves to wipe dirt from their foot or drinking water (Goodall, 1964). 

Due to the idea that humans had evolved from a common ancestor hypothesised by Darwin in The Descent of Man, this finding of tool use gives a small view of how the early humans had developed or used tools (Whiten et al, 1999). This lends evidence to the theory that humans evolved. 

Bandini, E., & Tennie, C. (2020). Exploring the role of individual learning in animal tool-use. PeerJ, 8, e9877. Retrieved from Peerj.com: https://peerj.com/articles/9877/?utm_source=TrendMD&utm_campaign=PeerJ_TrendMD_0&utm_medium=TrendMD.

This paper explores tool use behaviour in both wild and captive animals and that they can learn this individually (Bandini & Tennie, 2020). It concluded that there are many factors included in the possibility of the behaviours, such as environment, cognitive ability, genetics and pre-existing techniques (Bandini & Tennie, 2020). Bandini and Tennie posit that animals do acquire information though non-copying social learning and that the evidence in most animals’ species to form copying social learning is clear. 

Observations of cattle behavior applied to the design of cattle-handling facilities 1980

The design and construction of facilities for handling cattle 1997

Effect of animal welfare audits of slaughter plants by a major fast food company on cattle handling and stunning practices 2000

Cattle vocalizations are associated with handling and equipment problems at beef slaughter plants 2001

 

Temple Gradin Changed the beef industry by analysing the behaviour of cattle when being handled (Grandin, 2001)(Grandin, 1980)(Grandin, 1997). She noticed many links between the design of the facilities and stressed behaviour or ‘balking’; for example, if cattle could detect odours from the abattoir cattle would stop and refuse to move forward (Grandin, 1980). This can increase use of cattle prods and increase animal stress (Grandin, 1998). Grandin designed curved cattle chutes that reduces stress and injury to cattle and handlers, stressed cattle would injure humans (Grandin, 1980) (Grandin, 1997). An audit was done by Grandin for fast food companies in the USA in order to improve the welfare of the animals being euthanised for these purposes. (Grandin, 2001)(Grandin, 2000).

 

EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW), Nielsen, S. S., Alvarez, J., Bicout, D. J., Calistri, P., Depner, K., ... & Herskin, M. (2020). Welfare of cattle during killing for purposes other than slaughter on‐farm killing of cattle. EFSA Journal, 18(11), e06312.

 

This paper illustrates the proper way in which livestock should be euthanised in order to keep welfare up and decrease unnecessary distress and pain for the animal (Nielsen et al, 2020). This paper uses Grandin’s design for cattle chutes and her recommended guidelines on handling in terms of flight zones (Nielson et al, 2020).