Cognitive processing style is a reference to the way students absorb and retain information. Typically, this refers to two categories related to dual channel processing: Visual or verbal. Visual learners process information more effectively when it is presented through images, diagrams, spatial representations, or visual metaphors. Information formatted as infographics, mind maps, or animations benefits students in this category the most. Verbal learners most effectively take in information when its presented in either aural or written format. Research by Cuevas (2020) and Fiorella and Mayer (2021) cautions against being wedded to a specific learning style and advocate instead for a multimodal learning approach which presents learning material that's presented both visually and verbally

Prior Knowledge

A student's prior knowledge affects how well they engage with presented material. Students with a higher level of prior knowledge are more likely to possess well-developed mental schemas, allowing them to process information more efficiently and with reduced cognitive load. They adapt more readily to generative learning tasks such as problem solving, peer teaching, and designing projects that require deeper application of content (Chen et al., 2021). Comparatively, students with low prior knowledge need greater structure in order to keep their cognitive load manageable. This is accomplished through clear step-by-step instruction, scaffolded visuals, worked examples, and direct explanations. This approach works in alignment with the expertise reversal effect (Chen et al., 2021), which states that instructional techniques beneficial for novices can actually hinder experts. For example, while novice learners may benefit from an interactive tutorial that visually guides them through the steps of balancing chemical equations, advanced students may prefer to engage in generative exercises like creating their own problems or explaining concepts to peers. Instructional designers must therefore differentiate content by knowledge level to ensure that learners are neither overwhelmed nor under-stimulated.

Motivation and Self-Regulation

A student's level of motivation and their ability to self-regulate largely determine how well and how often students engage with content. Students who are highly motivated and who have a high capacity for self-regulation more commonly do well in learning environments that are interactive, self-paced, or generative. Conversely, students with low motivation and low capacity for self-regulation need constant feedback, guidance and reduced lesson load to maintain engagement. Dignath and Veenman (2021) note that learners with low self-regulation benefit from features like progress bars, reminders, and performance dashboards to scaffold metacognitive monitoring. Interactive instruction can help students in that category through increasing a sense of agency, but if the lessons are poorly designed, it can lead to disengagement. Students who have low motivation and low self regulation may benefit from the implementation of gamification elements such as point systems, leaderboards, or rewards(Clark & Mayer, 2023).

Cultural Background and Language Proficiency

Cultural background and language proficiency influence affect both student retention of content and comfort a variety of instructional formats. Learners from diverse cultural contexts may have varying expectations for classroom interaction, communication style, and authority structures. Culturally responsive instruction involves incorporating examples, metaphors, or visuals that are meaningful within the learner's cultural framework. Eady and Lockyer (2021) suggest that diverse learners are more engaged when content reflects their lived experiences and values, and when language scaffolding (e.g., glossaries, dual-language subtitles) is used to make content accessible.

Neurodivergence

Neurodivergent learners often find conventional instructional models challenging, especially if they're text heavy or don't require a high level of interaction. They may benefit from highly structured, interactive tasks that incorporate movement, gamified incentives, or short bursts of content in some cases, and predictable routines, reduced sensory load, and minimal ambiguity in visual or textual context in other cases. Multimedia instruction designed with Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles can accommodate a wide range of neurodivergent needs by offering flexibility in how content is perceived and responded to (Grynszpan et al., 2022). Alkhateeb (2023) emphasizes the need for customizable interfaces, auditory-visual synchronization, and the ability to control pacing as critical design features for inclusive learning platforms.

Age and Developmental Level

The developmental stage of learners affects not only what content is appropriate but also which instructional formats are most effective. Younger students, particularly those in elementary and middle school, benefit from concrete, sensory-dense, and highly interactive instruction. These students are still developing abstract reasoning and require hands-on learning experiences, narrative structure, and immediate feedback. Media like animated tutorials, educational games, and drag-and-drop activities are effective at maintaining their attention and promoting engagement. In contrast, teenage and adult students have a greater capacity for executive function and reasoning, so they're better equipped to engage in generative and self directed learning. Kennedy, Meyer, and Treacy (2023) note that matching instructional complexity to cognitive maturity is essential for avoiding boredom or overload. Mayer and Stull (2024) also note that adult students often prefer material that leverages personal experiences

Example: A Desmos activity that visually plots transformations in real-time can help these learners internalize slope and intercept concepts.

Students who are verbal learners might have the best learning experience when using approaches such as narrated walkthroughs that explain the same concepts using everyday language or structured outlines.

Example: A narrated screencast coupled with a hard copy transcript allows verbal learners to follow linear steps and explanations.

Instructors who apply Universal Design for Learning (UDL) can offer both visual and verbal modes of learning at the same time to create a diverse learning experience to support a range of cognitive processing styles and preferences. Mayer, Fiorella, & Stull, 2021). This approach allows students to select the modality that best works for them, which improves comprehension and engagement (Clark & Mayer, 2023).

Example: Students with ADHD may benefit from interactive math games that offer timed puzzles and audio cues to maintain focus when learning about concepts such as area and volume.

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Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2023). E-learning and the science of instruction (5th ed.). Wiley.

Dignath, C., & Veenman, M. V. (2021). Self-regulated learning in practice. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 999–1022.

Eady, M. J., & Lockyer, L. (2021). Tools for learning design for multilingual classrooms. Computers & Education, 174, 104319.

Fiorella, L. (2023). The Science of Learning: 99 Studies That Every Teacher Needs to Know. Routledge.

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Kennedy, J., Meyer, B., & Treacy, D. (2023). Personalizing learning by age and style. Learning and Instruction, 83, 101733.

Mayer, R. E., Fiorella, L., & Stull, A. T. (2021). Five ways to increase multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 56(4), 225–239.

Mayer, R. E., & Stull, A. T. (2024). Multimedia instruction: Current trends and challenges. Review of Educational Research, 94(1), 110–129.

Pérez, L., Herrera, S., & Golden, S. (2020). Cultural responsiveness in multimedia learning. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 22(3), 77–93.