Latin America = Mexico, Central America, Caribbean, south America

Latin = language of ancient Rome

culture region = same languages & region

Spanish and Portuguese are spoken → Linguistic and cultural similarities

Location: Mexico is the southernmost country in North America.

Topography: It features a central plateau situated between two major mountain ranges: the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental.

Mexico City:

• Located on a plateau.

• Air Pollution: Surrounded by mountains, trapping automobile exhaust and leading to severe air pollution.

• Earthquake: Built on a weak lakebed, making it susceptible to severe damage during earthquakes.

Geography: A narrow strip of land connecting Mexico and South America.

Terrain: Mostly mountainous with over 40 volcanoes. The Pacific coast is volcanically active.

Seismic Activity: Frequent earthquakes cause significant damage to cities, roads, and buildings.

Vegetation: Coniferous trees in mountains, tropical rainforests in lowlands.

Climate: Warm, humid, and rainy.

Anomalous rise in sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific

As trade winds weaken, warm waters move eastward

Warm waters that would normally go to Asia move toward South America

Anomalous weather events:

• South America: floods, storms, heavy rainfall

• Other regions: droughts, wildfires, crop damage

• Fish move away from warm waters → damage to fishing industry

Empire Growth: Originated in their capital, Cuzco, and expanded to encompass most of western South America.

Adaptation to Terrain: Utilized terraced farming to adapt to mountainous environments.

Record Keeping: Used Quipu (knotted strings) for records instead of written language.

Communication: Maintained a network of roads with runners for relaying messages.

Stone Building Technology: Renowned for their advanced stone construction, using large stones up to 200 tons, moved with wooden rollers.

Machu Picchu: Their most famous stone structure, located at approximately 8,000 feet above sea level. Its walls were designed to appear as if naturally emerging from the mountain, and it features terraced (stairway) fields connected by stairs.

Aztec emperor Montezuma II welcomed Cortés, but was soon taken prisoner. The Spanish took control of the Aztec Empire

Other Aztec leaders pushed the Spanish out, but the Spanish returned and retook the city with help from Native American allies

The Spanish had stronger weapons (steel swords, armor, guns, cannons) and horses, while the Aztecs had war clubs, spears, and arrows

Land Conflicts: Mexico had disputes with the U.S. over land after gaining independence.

Cultural Blend: Native and Spanish cultures merged, forming a new Mexican identity.

Peninsulares: Born in Spain, top of society.

Criollos: Spaniards born in Mexico, wealthy but below peninsulares.

Mestizos: Mixed Spanish and Native American, third class.

Natives: Lower class.

Blacks: African slaves, considered property.

Spanish rulers gave Native villages to Spanish men.

Villagers paid tribute (goods, money, labor) and were treated like slaves.

Their labor enriched Spain, but they lived in poverty.

1808: France conquering Spain fueled Mexican demands for independence.

September 16, 1810: Father Miguel Hidalgo - cries of Dolores

Dolores: call to change (reform)

Hidalgo's army grew but he was eventually captured and executed.

1821: Mexico achieved independence from Spain.

Post-independence: Power remained with peninsulares and criollos; Native Americans and mestizos saw little benefit.

1821: Mexico was much larger, including much of the present-day U.S. Southwest.

This northern land was dry and sparsely populated by Mexicans.

The Mexican government invited foreigners (especially from the U.S.) to settle there.

By the 1830s, most Texas settlers were U.S. citizens and felt loyal to the U.S., not Mexico.

1835: Texas settlers revolted against Mexico for independence.

1836: They established the Republic of Texas after various battles.

1845: Texas was annexed by the United States.

1846: A border dispute escalated into war between Mexico and the U.S.

1848: U.S. forces secured northern Mexico, leading to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, where Mexico ceded significant land to the U.S.

1853: The Gadsden Purchase further expanded U.S. territory in northern Mexico.

Since then, minor border adjustments have occurred, but no further wars.

President James K. Polk, a key figure in U.S. expansion, oversaw the annexation of Texas in 1845.

1821: Mexico gained independence from Spain.

Mexico lost land to the U.S. (e.g., Texas, California) after war.

Army leaders frequently seized control.

Mexico faced widespread poverty and unequal wealth distribution.

Over 1 million died; leaders like Madero and Zapata were killed.

Fighting ended in 1920, with ongoing reform efforts.

1917 Constitution:

• Promised land redistribution to lessen inequality.

• 1920–1940: Large estates were broken up into ejidos (land for small farmers/community farms).

The revolution led to the PRI party, which governed Mexico peacefully from 1929 to 2000.

Democratic Republic: Mexico operates as a democracy and republic, similar to the U.S.

Three Branches: It has executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Vicente Fox's Election (Dec 1, 2000):

• The first non-PRI president in 70 years.

• Marked a new era of democratic change.

States & Voting:

• Composed of 31 states with their own governments and laws.

• Citizens 18 and older can vote in national elections.

Official Name: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican States).