Wycliffe (1384): First English Bible translation, circulated illegally in handwritten copies.

Tyndale (1526): Printed New Testament in English, clearer and more poetic. He coined many new English words and phrases. Executed in 1536.

Henry VIII’s Reformation (1530s): Shifted attitudes; English Bibles encouraged (e.g., Coverdale, Matthew, Great Bible).

King James Bible (1611): Standardized English Bible, deliberately conservative in style. Many phrases entered everyday speech (e.g., “salt of the earth,” “thorn in the flesh”). Considered a masterpiece of English prose.

First Dictionary (1604): Robert Cawdrey’s A Table Alphabeticall listed 2,543 “hard words.”

Nathaniel Bailey (1721): Universall Etymological Dictionary with 60,000 entries.

Samuel Johnson (1755): His Dictionary of the English Language became the authoritative reference until the Oxford English Dictionary.

Grammar Development: Robert Lowth (1762) and Lindley Murray (1794) introduced prescriptive rules (e.g., no double negatives, don’t end with a preposition).

Reform Attempts: Scholars like Cheke and Bullokar proposed spelling reforms, but none succeeded. Calls for an English Academy (e.g., Jonathan Swift, 1712) never materialized.

They marked a turning point in standardization: Dictionaries (like Cawdrey’s Table Alphabeticall in 1604 and Johnson’s Dictionary in 1755) and grammar books (like Lowth’s in 1762) helped establish rules and norms for the language.

They gave English prestige and structure: With defined rules and reference works, English became more respected as a scholarly, literary, and international language, not just a spoken vernacular.

They preserved and shaped usage: These works influenced how English was written, taught, and even judged (prescriptive rules such as don’t split infinitives or no double negatives).

Period: 16th–18th century, when 10,000–12,000 new words were coined.

Poetry: Introduced sonnets (Thomas Wyatt). Writers like Spenser, Donne, Milton, Dryden, and Marvell flourished.

Prose & Science: Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton began writing in English instead of Latin. Newton’s Opticks (1704) introduced terms like lens and refraction.

Word Creators: Elyot (animate, esteem), More (education, utopia), Milton (pandemonium), Ben Jonson (clumsy), Donne (self-preservation). Many words from this era remain in use.

Explosion of New Vocabulary: Between 1500–1650, English gained 10,000–12,000 new words, many still in use today.

Shift from Latin to English: Scholars like Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton began publishing works in English instead of Latin. This gave English prestige as a scholarly language, no longer seen as inferior to Latin or French.

Literary Achievements: Poets and playwrights (Shakespeare, Spenser, Donne, Marvell, Dryden, etc.) produced works that remain classics of world literature.

Cultural Identity: Literature of this era helped build national pride and identity, showcasing English as a powerful artistic tool.

Transformed English with flexibility in grammar and creativity in vocabulary.

Coined ~2,000 words (e.g., majestic, radiance, assassination, lonely).

Introduced phrases still used today (love is blind, laughing stock, one fell swoop).

His vocabulary reached ~34,000 words.

Reflected ongoing changes in grammar: both -eth and -es verb endings, word order becoming more fixed (SVO).

His works document the transition of English grammar during the late 1500s–early 1600s.

Britain’s naval power and colonial expansion (16th–17th centuries) brought many loanwords into English.

Examples:

• French: ballet, cuisine, garage, prestige.

• Italian: opera, piano, studio, fiasco.

• Spanish: armada, bravado, cannibal.

• Portuguese: marmalade, molasses, breeze.

• German: noodle, dollar, waltz, kindergarten.

Trade and empire made English more cosmopolitan.