Subject specific  | Academic  | Other language
miniskirt
hemline
knee-level
fashion designer  | credited
designer
cited
invented  | above the knee(s)
credited to
inspired by
cited as
disagreement as to

Marzano's cognitive system is similar to the six levels of Bloom and Anderson. In knowledge retrieval (cf. Remembering and Understanding) the child needs to be able to identify and put a name to new information; for example, the topic might be mammals and the names of different types of big cat, such as tiger, lion, cheetah and so on.  Facts about mammals will involve statements and generalizations using the simple present tense, such as:

These language functions can be linked to all four basic language skills using activities based on oracy (speaking and listening) and literacy tasks (reading and writing). For example, learners can listen to descriptions of animals and choose the correct picture, use a tick chart to listen to comparisons of big cats and then use this as a speaking frame to produce simple sentences. Learners might read simple descriptions of big cats and transfer key information onto a chart, then use this chart to write simple sentences. This basic knowledge can be extended to compare and classify types of big cat in different ways according to features such as habitat, characteristics, appearance etc.

Under comprehension the learners sort out which information is important or relevant for a task and ignore other information. Graphic organizers such as charts, grids, Venn diagrams and flow charts are especially important here for learners as they organize information in a way that reduces the language load. Thus they help the learner to focus on the key language and thinking required.

In analysis the learners need to draw on more complex thinking processes - matching, classifying, generalizing and specifying - in order to create and invent new insights or new ways of using learned information. These skills are likely to be highlighted when carrying out investigations. Knowledge use is the highest form of thinking process under Marzano's system and is used particularly in the creation of investigations, projects and web quests, where application and the creation of new ideas are particularly useful.

Graphic organizers are tools that can be used to visualize and organize information. Because graphic organizers are often used as prompts for students to fill in the blanks, graphic organizers provide many benefits to students who use them including:

Use of Tenses

Mind the correct use of tenses when describung a chart. If the charts deals with facts in the present (as in our example), use the Simple Present, if the facts are the past, then use the Simple Past. If there is a connection between the past and the present, use the Present Perfect.

Ex.
1 Introduction

Here you say what the diagram is about. Mind the title of it and do not forget to include the source.

The pie chart is about the pets in Year 7. The chart is divided into 5 parts. It is taken from ...

2 Message of the diagram

The largest number of pets are in form 7GI. There are 16 pets.
 The second largest number of pets are in form 7HK. There are 8 pets.
 So there are more than twice as many pets in form 7GI. 
 The chart shows that there are only 2 pets in form 7CS and 3 in form 7VR.

3 Conclusion

So we can say that the most pets of Year 7 are in form 7GI and the least in form 7CS. There are more than 50 per cent of all the pets in one form - form 7GI.

Students are allowed to choose the books they read depending on their interests, and there is not always a follow-up discussion or work in class. In this way students are encouraged to read for pleasure and should become better readers.

Aims of extensive reading 
 The principal objective of undertaking an extensive reading approach is to get students reading in English and liking it. An increase in reading fluency should be another objective. Because of this, reading should be a pleasurable activity for the student, promoted as much as possible by the teacher.

The characteristics of an extensive reading approach

Graded readers provide prompts for classroom activities in ways that many textbooks or undifferentiated material cannot.  Books which students have chosen deliberately and are enjoying reading are self-evidently within their competence.  Textbook work can never be quite as accessible or as pleasurable.  Additionally, students are usually excited about sharing their current reading with the rest of the class and less able students gain confidence when they can perform and contribute in the same way as more able classmates.

Teachers can easily use the class library and students’ current reading to extend and practise textbook topics.  The brief 5-10 minute activities below are just a few examples of the kind of naturally differentiated tasks which can amplify and support the syllabus.

These are just a few examples of short activities that can be created on the spot using the readers in the class libraries as prompts.  These kinds of tasks are useful because they:

Don’t forget that graded readers span a wide range of ability levels and there is strong emphasis on student choice.  This ensures that all students, even the least able, can easily find accessible and enjoyable books for themselves to enjoy both at home and at school.

It is widely accepted that people become good readers through reading, and that learning how to read should mean a primary focus of attention on the meaning rather than the language of the text. It is pretty obvious that extensive reading helps students become better readers. Research by Richard Day amongst many others shows that we learn to read by reading. The more language students read, the better readers they become. An integral part of this is learning new vocabulary.

 

Probably the most cited benefit of Extensive Reading is that it can extend and sustain students’ vocabulary growth. We know that vocabulary is not learned by a single exposure. Experts in language and literacy development such as Harvard University Education Professor Catherine Snow believe that you need to encounter a word or phrase in different contexts between 15 and 20 times to have a high possibility of learning the word or phrase. Students are highly unlikely to encounter vocabulary sufficient times within the classroom to learn it. However, if they read extensively they are much more likely to get multiple encounters with words and phrases in a variety of contexts.

 

Students who read extensively also make gains in writing proficiency (Elley and Mangubhai 1981, and Hafiz and Tudor 1989). This is probably because as students encounter more language, more frequently, through extensive reading, their language acquisition mechanism is primed to produce it in writing.

In addition to gains in reading and writing proficiency, research demonstrates that students who read extensively also make gains in overall language competence. For example, Cho andKrashen (1994) reported that their four adult ESL learners increased competence in both listening and speaking abilities through reading extensively. So Extensive Reading would seem to benefit all language skills, not just reading and writing.

It is highly motivating for students to discover that they can read in English and that they enjoy it. For this reason it is essential that the books are interesting to students and at a level appropriate to their reading ability. If students find the books compelling and interesting, and can understand them, they may become more eager readers. This can also help to boost their confidence and self-esteem as language learners.

 

Students can read anywhere, at any time, and reading extensively helps them become more autonomous learners. To promote learner autonomy extensive reading should be a student-managed activity. That is to say that students should decide what, when, where and how often they read.

 

Neuroscientific and social science studies have shown that people who read literary fiction extensively are more empathic. People who read novels about other people who are very different from themselves and their backgrounds are particularly empathic.

 

Conclusion
There are many benefits of Extensive Reading in language learning. These include gains in reading and writing competence, oral and aural skills, vocabulary growth, and increases in motivation, self-esteem and empathy. Students who read extensively also become more autonomous learners.