Explore differences in how children and adults process and store information.

Include topics like critical periods, brain plasticity, and memory retention.

Focus on the social contexts of learning, such as family, school, workplace, and community.

Highlight how peer interaction differs for children and adults.

Play-Based Language Learning

• Use games, songs, and role-playing activities to teach vocabulary and basic structures.

• Example: A game where children act out verbs (e.g., running, jumping) in the second language.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

• Combine language learning with physical actions to enhance retention.

• Example: Teaching commands like "stand up" or "clap your hands" while performing the actions.

Goal-Oriented Learning

• Focus on practical uses of the second language, such as work or travel.

• Example: Teaching adults how to introduce themselves in professional settings or order food at a restaurant.

Pronunciation and Grammar Drills

• Address common challenges like pronunciation and grammar explicitly.

• Example: Practicing specific sounds that don’t exist in the learners’ native language or reviewing verb conjugations.

For Children:

• Act as a guide and entertainer, using creative methods to immerse children in the second language naturally.

For Adults:

• Focus on building confidence and reducing anxiety about speaking the second language.

Learning a new language in time: What does variation in bilingual experience tell us? Commentary on Caldwell-Harris and MacWhinney (2023): Age effects in second language acquisition: Expanding the emergentist account. Brain & Language, 241, 105269 2023, Brain and Language