1. Upper Paleolithic Age of Man: Survival was the primary objective.

1. Neolithic Era: Forming settlements. 

1. Bronze Age: Dawn of civilisations, with humans:

1. Age of Idealism: Rise of Greek and Roman culture.

1. Middle Age: Art focused heavily on contextualizing and depicting religious figures along with more eccentric art.

1. Renaissance: One of the most important transitional periods in history.

1. Humanism: Possibility of Artist as a career

1. Baroque Era: Reuse of artistic forms with art of time displaying grandiose spectacle along with other events.

1. Romantic Age: Emphasis on individuality, nature and celebration of imagination.

• Tribal art transforming at a steady pace across the world.
• Native Americans saw totems and pottery as part of culture with symbolism and style being influenced.
• Masks and statues in Africa continue to be core part of countless tribes with innovation of art slowly resulting due to evolution of ritualistic behaviors.
• The Ndebele tribe of South Africa developed the most stylistically different African art and fostered art as culture.
• Color always has a role in drawing emotion in art, Ndebele specifically utilized a wide array of colors to convey specific meaning as part of life.
• Japan strayed off realism movements and worked with line work and intelligent use of color to add flair.
• Inspired Van Gogh to craft art with emphasis of effective use of brush strokes and color as opposed to blending.
• Artistic styles coming together: Japanese Ukiyo-e painting and geometric forms of African art shaping neo-western styles.
• Thoughts on art fragmented in Europe during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Emergence of more expressive styles was frowned upon due to perceived lack of effort and skill in creating stylised pieces. Dividing those who used art to express their emotions and thoughts.
• Gradual birth of wealth of anti and neo art movements after the end of realism.

Realism vs Style

• Some believe realism should prevail as it shows artists’ true technical capacity and skill like Picasso.
• Realism is not the epitome of art.

• https://youtu.be/bkWHrWw5yTg

1. Pre-history – Events that occurred before the invention of writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history is represented by the three stone ages.
2. Proto-history – It refers to the period between pre-history and history, during which a culture or organisation had not developed yet but has its mention in the written records of a contemporary literate civilisation. For example, the scripts of the Harappan civilization remains undeciphered, however since its existence is noted in Mesopotamian writing, it is considered part of proto-history. Similarly, Vedic civilisation from 1500-600 BCE is considered part of proto-history as well. Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures are also considered part of proto-history by archaeologists.
3. History – The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of literate societies based on written records and archaeological sources constitute history.

1. Non-literary sources
2. Literary sources – which include religious literature & secular literature

• Coins: Ancient Indian currency was not issued in the form of paper but as coins. The earliest coins found in India contained only a few symbols, punch-marked coins made of silver & copper, but later coins mentioned the names of the kings, gods, dates, etc. The areas where they were found indicate the region of their circulation. This enabled to reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties, especially during Indo-Greek rule who came to India from Northern Afghanistan and ruled India in 2nd and 1st BCE. Coins throw light on the economic history of different dynasties and also provide input on different parameters involved such as the script, art, religion of that time. It also helps in understanding the progress made in terms of metallurgy and science and technology. (The study of coins is called Numismatics).
• Archaeology/Material remains: The science which deals with the digging of the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers and enables to form an idea of the material life of the people is called Archaeology. Material remains recovered as a result of excavation and exploration are subjected to various kinds of examinations. Their dates are fixed according to radiocarbon dating. For example, excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period help us to know about the life of the people who lived in that era. Similarly, the Megaliths (graves in south India) throw light on the life of the people living in the Deccan and South India before 300 BCE. The history of climate and vegetation is known through an examination of plant residues, especially through pollen analysis.
• Inscriptions/Prashastis – (The study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions is called epigraphy). Writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone and metals like copper which usually record some achievements, ideas, royal orders and decisions help in understanding different religions, and administrative policies of that era. For example, inscriptions detailing state policy issued by Emperor Ashoka and inscriptions recording the land grants by Satavahanas, Kings of the Deccan.
• Foreign accounts: Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. To India came the Greek, Chinese and Roman visitors, either as travellers or religious converts, and left behind a rich account of our historical past. Some of the notables among them were:
  • Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote “Indica” and provided valuable information about the Mauryan society and administration.
  • “The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” and “Ptolemy’s Geography” both written in Greek give valuable information about the ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman empire.
  • Fa-Hein Faxien (337 CE – 422 CE), a Buddhist traveller, left a vivid account of the age of the Guptas.
  • Hsuan-Tsang, a Buddhist pilgrim, visited India and gave details of India under the reign of King Harshavardhana and the glory of the Nalanda University.

• Religious Literature: The religious literature throws light on the social, economic as well as cultural conditions of the ancient Indian period. Some of the sources are:
  • The Four Vedas – The Vedas may be assigned to c.1500 – 500 BCE. The Rigveda mainly contains prayers while the later Vedic texts (Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) comprise not only prayers but rituals, magic and mythological stories. Read more on the four Vedas in the linked article.
  • Upanishads – The Upanishads (Vedanta) contain philosophical discussions on “Atma” and “Paramatma”.
  • Epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana – Of the two epics, the Mahabharata is older in age and possibly reflects the state of affairs from the 10th century BCE to the 4th century CE. Originally it consisted of 8800 verses (called Jaya Samhita). The final compilation brought the verses to 1,00,000 which came to be known as the Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic material. The Ramayana originally consisted of 12000 verses which were later raised to 24000. This epic also has its didactic portions which were added later.
  • Sutras – Sutras contain ritual literature such as Shrautasutras (which include sacrifices, royal coronation) and Grihya Sutras (which include domestic rituals like birth, naming, marriage, funeral, etc.)
  • Buddhist religious texts – The early Buddhist texts were written in Pali language and are commonly known as Tripitaka (three baskets) – Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. These texts throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of that era. They also make references to political events in the age of the Buddha. Read more on Buddhism.
  • Jaina’s religious texts – The Jaina texts commonly called “angas”, were written in the Prakrit language, and contain philosophical concepts of the Jainas. They contain many texts which help to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The Jaina texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. Read more on Jainism.
• Secular Literature: There is also a large body of secular literature such as:
  • Dharmashastras/Law books – These lay down the duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribe the rules according to which property is to be held, sold and inherited. They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft, murder, etc. 
  • Arthashastra – Arthashastra of Kautilya reflects the state of society and economy in the age of the Mauryas.
  • Literary work of Kalidasa – The works of the great poet Kalidasa comprises kavyas and dramas, the most important being Abhijnanasakuntalam. Besides being creative composition, they give an insight into the social and cultural life of northern and central India in the age of the Guptas.
  • Rajatarangini – This is the famous book written by Kalhana and depicts the social and political life of 12th century CE Kashmir.
  • Charitas/Biographies – Charitas are the biographies written by court poets in admiration of their rulers such as Harshacharita written by Banabhatta in praise of King Harshavardhana.
  • Sangam literature – This is the earliest south Indian literature, produced by poets who assembled together (Sangam), and provides valuable information about the social, economic and political life of the people living in deltaic Tamil Nadu. This Tamil literature contains literary gems such as ‘Silappadikaram’ and ‘Manimekalai’. Read more on Sangam Literature in the linked article.

1. 1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
   2. Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE
   3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6000 BCE – 1000 BCE
   4. Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): 3000 BCE – 500 BCE
   5. Iron Age: 1500 BCE – 200 BCE

• Palaeolithic age (old stone age): Period – 500,000 – 10,000 BCE
• Mesolithic age (late stone age): Period – 10,000 – 6000 BCE
• Neolithic age (new stone age): Period – 6000 – 1000 BCE

1. The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race, and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters.
2. They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on hunting.
3. There was no knowledge of houses, pottery, agriculture. It was only in later stages they discovered fire.
4. In the upper palaeolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of paintings.
5. Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and scrapers.

1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC
2. Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC
3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

• It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
• Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools were rough and heavy.
• One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra.
• Limestone was also used to make tools.
• Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age
  • Soan valley (in present Pakistan)
  • Sites in the Thar Desert
  • Kashmir
  • Mewar plains
  • Saurashtra
  • Gujarat
  • Central India
  • Deccan Plateau
  • Chotanagpur plateau
  • North of the Cauvery River
  • Belan valley in UP
• There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters.
• An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

• Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
• The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
• There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools.
• Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
  • Belan valley in UP
  • Luni valley (Rajasthan)
  • Son and Narmada rivers
  • Bhimbetka
  • Tungabhadra river valleys
  • Potwar Plateau (between Indus & Jhelum)
  • Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan)

• The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the climate became comparatively warmer and less humid.
• Emergence of Homo sapiens.
• The period is marked by innovation in tools and technology. A lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools and burin tools.
• Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age
  • Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) – hand axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and a few burins have been found here.
  • Belan
  • Son
  • Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
  • Maharashtra
  • Orissa and
  • The Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
  • Bone tools have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.

• The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering initially but later on they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture.
• The first animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
• The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent settlements along with occupying caves and open grounds.
• The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they buried the dead with food items and other goods.
• The characteristic tools of this era were microliths – the miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes. They were not only used as tools but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. These microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds.
• The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin.
• The Mesolithic people were art lovers and initiated rock art. The subject matter of these paintings was mostly wild animals and hunting scenes, dancing and food collection were also depicted in such paintings. These rock paintings give an idea about the development of religious practices and also reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender.
  
  
• The first human colonization of the Ganga Plains happened during this period.

• Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India. Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths along with animal bones and shells have been excavated.
• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals.
• There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich concentration in Central India such as Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
• Microliths have also been found in some valleys of river Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi.
• Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites. Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from Langhnaj. Several human skeletons and a large number of microliths have been recovered from these places.
• Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, they have been found in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).

• Tools and Weapons – The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stones. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished hand axes. They also used tools and weapons made of bones – such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. The use of new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner.
• Agriculture – The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also domesticated cattle, sheep and goats.
• Pottery – With the advent of agriculture, people were required to store their food grains as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s why it is said that pottery appeared in this phase on a large scale. The pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat impressed ware. In the initial stages of the Neolithic age, handmade pottery was made but later on, foot wheels were used to make pots.
• Housing and Settled Life – The people of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular houses which were made of mud and reeds. Neolithic men also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton, wool and weave cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a more settled life and paved the way for the beginning of civilization.

• Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad) – This site provides evidence of circular huts along with crude hand made pottery. There is also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice, not only in India but anywhere in the world.
• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) – The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in houses built of sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.
• Burzahom (Kashmir) – The domestic dogs were buried along with their masters in their graves; people lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones as well as bones.
• Gufkral (Kashmir) – This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses.
• Chirand (Bihar) – The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones.
• Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka) – The people were cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash mounds have been found.
• Belan Valley (which is located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of Narmada valley) – All the three phases i.e., palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic ages are found in sequence.

• Agriculture & cattle rearing – The people living in the stone-copper age domesticated animals and cultivated food grains. They domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pig and buffaloes and hunted deer. It is not clear whether they were acquainted with the horse or not. People ate beef but did not take pork on any considerable scale. The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and rice, they also cultivated bajra. They also produced several pulses such as lentil (masur), black gram, green gram, and grass pea. Cotton was produced in the black cotton soil of the Deccan and ragi, bajra and several millets were cultivated in the lower Deccan. The people belonging to the stone-copper phase in the eastern regions lived mainly on fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in that part of the country.
• Pottery – The people of the stone-copper phase used different types of pottery, one of which is called black and red pottery and seems to have been widely prevalent in that era. The ochre-coloured pottery was also popular. The potter’s wheel was used and painting with white linear designs was also done.
• Rural settlements – The people living in the stone age were characterised by rural settlements and were not acquainted with burnt bricks. They lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. This age also marked the beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs lived in rectangular houses while the commoners lived in round huts. Their villages consisted of more than 35 houses of different sizes, circular or rectangular in shape. The chalcolithic economy is considered as a village economy.
• Art and Craft – The chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of copper smelting and were good stone workers as well. They knew spinning and weaving and were well acquainted with the art of manufacturing cloth. However, they did not know the art of writing.
• Worship – Small clay images of earth goddesses have been found from the chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated the Mother Goddess. In Malwa and Rajasthan, stylised bull terracottas show that the bull served as a religious cult.
• Infant mortality –  Infant mortality was high among the Chalcolithic people, as is evident from the burial of a large number of children in West Maharashtra. In spite of being a food-producing economy, the rate of infant mortality was very high. We can say that the Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not promote longevity.
• Jewellery – The Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. They manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.

• Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern Rajasthan) – The people of this region practised smelting and metallurgy, supplied copper tools to other contemporary communities. Rice was cultivated here.
• Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan) – Stone blade industry was discovered here.
• Daimabad  (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) – The largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari valley. It is famous for recovery of bronze goods such as bronze rhinoceros, elephant, two wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo.
• Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) – The settlements of Malwa culture are mostly located on the Narmada and its tributaries. It provides evidence of the richest chalcolithic ceramics, and also spindle whorls.
• Kayatha (Madya Pradesh) – The settlement of Kayatha culture was mostly located on the Chambal River and its tributaries. Houses had mud-plastered floors, pre-Harappan elements in pottery along with copper objects with sharp cutting edges were found.
• Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal) – These are the prominent chalcolithic sites in these states.
• Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra) – Large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses have been discovered here.
• Navdatoli (on Narmada) – It was one of the largest chalcolithic settlements in the country. It was spread over 10 hectares and cultivated almost all food grains.
• Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh) – These sites are known for their non-Harappan culture.

• Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period
• Jainism, Buddhism
• Mahajanapadas: the first major civilisation on the banks of the river Ganga after the Indus Valley.

• Human history before the invention of writing systems and documentation. 
• PREHISTORY can be divided into 3 periods:

1. Paleolithic period (30,000- 10,000 BCE)
2. Mesolithic period (10,000- 8,000 BCE)
3. Neolithic period (8,000- 3,000 BCE)

• Nude woman (Venus of Wilendorf) (c. 24,000 BCE)
• Lion-Human (c. 30- 26,000 BCE)
• Star Carr Pendant (10,000- 8,000 BCE)
• Catalhuyuk (7400- 6200 BCE)
• Goddess Figurine Catalhuyuk (7400- 6200 BCE)
• Stonehenge (c. 2750- 1500 BCE) 

1. POCKET (Mobility)- called pocket since it's portable work and generally are of small size given the nomadic lifestyle of Paleolithic people.
2. WALL (Parietal)- 

• permanently located works found on walls within caves.
• variety of geometric motifs, many types of flora and fauna and sometimes human figures
• Size: several inches to many feet in length.

1. Stone tools and weapons: During the Stone Age, people relied on stone tools and weapons to hunt, gather food, and defend themselves. These included flint knives, spears, arrowheads, scrapers, and chisels.
2. Jewelry: People in the Stone Age created jewelry from materials such as shells, bones, and stones.
3. Pottery: Later in the Stone Age, people began to create pottery vessels for storing and cooking food.
4. Fishing equipment: They created fish hooks and nets made from plant fibers or animal tendons.

1. Bronze tools and weapons: The most important products of the Bronze Age were bronze tools and weapons. These included axes, knives, swords, spears, and armor.
2. Chariots: The Bronze Age saw the development of wheeled vehicles, including chariots, which were used for transportation and warfare.
3. Musical instruments: Some Bronze Age communities created musical instruments such as horns, bells, and drums.
4. Metalworking tools: People in the Bronze Age used specialized tools such as hammers, tongs, and anvils to work with metal.
5. Agricultural tools: The Bronze Age saw the development of new agricultural tools such as plows, sickles, and hoes, which helped to increase food production.

1. Iron tools and weapons: Iron was the most important product of the Iron Age, and it was used to make a wide range of tools and weapons, such as axes, knives, swords, and spears.
2. Pottery: Pottery was used extensively during the Iron Age for storing and cooking food. It was also used to create decorative objects such as figurines.
3. Jewelry: The Iron Age saw the emergence of elaborate metal jewelry, including bracelets, necklaces, and earrings, often made from bronze or gold.
4. Wooden objects: Despite the widespread use of iron, many everyday objects such as bowls, spoons, and furniture were still made from wood during the Iron Age.
5. Glass: Glass was used during the Iron Age to create decorative objects such as beads, as well as for windows in high-status buildings.
6. Building materials: Stone and brick were commonly used to construct buildings during the Iron Age, although the use of mud and wattle-and-daub techniques was also widespread.

• The prehistoric period- when there was human life before records documented human activity- roughly dates from 3.5 million years ago. 
• It is categorised in three categories:-

1. STONE AGE
2. BRONZE AGE
3. IRON AGE

• It began about 3.3 million years ago
• Stones were used as tools during this time 
• Types of tools used - bifacial tools, pebble tools, flake tools and blade tools.
• It was divided into three periods- Paleolithic ➢Mesolithic ➢Neolithic

• The first period in which metal was used 
• 4000.B.C to 2000.B.C
• The beginning of the Bronze Age is sometimes called the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age, referring to the initial use of pure copper. 
• People used bronze to make tools
• The wheel was invented   

• It is the final technological and cultural stage
• started between 1200 B.C. and 600 B.C
• Metal for the most part
  replaced bronze in implements and weapons
• The most popular job during this period was farming 
• Inventions- farming tools like plowshare, coulter, and iron chisel , shield

• Bhimbetka Petroglyphs (290,000-700,000 BCE) 
• Petroglyphs means rock carving
• Venus of Berekhat Ram: The World’s Oldest Piece of Art That Predates Humans
•  The Venus of Tan tan is an alleged artifact found in Morocco. 
• The Makapansgat Pebble

• http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/prehistoric/bhimbetka-petroglyphs.htm
• https://www.britannica.com/place/Kultepe
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/cavestocathedrals/part/prehistory/
•