Another new activity that coincided with the times was exploration and investigation of other social orders and cultures. It’s easy call this the catalyst for the interest in other cultures and countries, but I also think that there is a ‘chicken or the egg’ factor here in that one can question whether exploration and travel induced interest in other cultures or did interest in other cultures and the seeking of new ways inspire exploration and travel.

The rise in accessibility of books leading to more discovered interests in general, and

The accessibility of books perpetuating the accessibility and growth in the ideas of science. Thus raising more questions about the origins, existence, purpose, and roles of humanity.

E.B. Tylor, often regarded as the father of anthropology, made significant strides in the late 19th century by emphasizing the importance of studying cultures in a systematic and comparative manner. His work, particularly "Primitive Culture" (1871), laid the foundation for cultural anthropology. Tylor introduced the concept of cultural evolution, proposing that societies progress from simpler to more complex stages over time. This idea reflects the broader intellectual climate of the Enlightenment, which favored a linear and developmental view of history.

Henry Lewis Morgan, a contemporary of Tylor, also made profound contributions to the development of anthropology. Morgan's focus on kinship and social organization led to his formulation of the social-cultural evolutionary theory. This theory posited that societies evolve through predetermined stages: from savagery to barbarism and, ultimately, to civilization. Morgan's evolutionary framework, while rooted in Enlightenment ideals, shifted the emphasis from a universal progression to a more nuanced understanding of cultural diversity and historical contingency.

The social-cultural evolutionary theory championed by Tylor and Morgan differed significantly from the biological evolutionary theory popularized by Darwin in the same era. While Darwin's theory primarily concerned biological adaptation through natural selection, social-cultural evolutionists sought to explain cultural development based on the transmission of customs and ideas. This distinction marked a departure from purely biological determinism, reflecting a broader shift towards a more holistic understanding of human development.

Franz Boas, a prominent figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, challenged the prevailing evolutionary perspectives and introduced the concept of historical particularism. Boas argued that each culture has its unique history, and any attempt to generalize or create a universal evolutionary model oversimplifies the richness of human diversity. This shift towards historical particularism rejected the deterministic approach of earlier thinkers, emphasizing the importance of studying cultures within their specific historical and environmental contexts.

In addition to historical particularism, Boas also championed cultural relativism. This approach rejects ethnocentrism, the tendency to evaluate other cultures based on one's own cultural standards. Boas argued for understanding and interpreting each culture on its own terms, acknowledging the inherent value and validity of diverse cultural practices. Cultural relativism became a cornerstone of modern anthropological methodology, fostering a more respectful and unbiased approach to the study of human societies.

In conclusion, the development of anthropology within the Enlightenment movement witnessed a progression from linear, evolutionary models proposed by Tylor and Morgan to the more nuanced and context-specific approaches advocated by Boas. This evolution marked a shift towards recognizing cultural diversity, historical contingency, and the importance of understanding societies on their own terms. The interplay of these ideas laid the groundwork for anthropology as a discipline that continues to thrive and adapt in the exploration of human cultures and societies.

‘Tylor’s conception of anthropology as a liberal “reformer’s science” purging Victorian culture of the unexamined “survivals” of traditional “superstition ...” [Stocking, 1995: xiv]

In his obituary in American Anthropologist 1917 (19: 262-268) Robert Lowie stated:

‘Tylor’s vision embraced, to cite his own definition of culture, ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.

The use of scientific philosophies to understand human experience.

During this period, Voltaire also adopted what would become his most famous and influential intellectual stance, announcing himself as a member of the “party of humanity” and devoting himself toward waging war against the twin hydras of fanaticism and superstition.